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LiBRARY^OF CONGRESS. 
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Chap.. __. Copyright No. 

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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



RAND-McNALLY 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR 



COMPOSITION 



Principles and Definitions Derived 
by Induction. 



FOR PUPILS OF THE SIXTH GRADE. 



BY 

WILLIAM D. HALL. 






■U" 



CHICAGO AND NEW YORK: 

HAND, McNALLY & COMPANY. 



C-9 



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7t x 



Copyright, 1897, by Rand, McNally & Co. 



INTRODUCTION. 



The forms of language found in good literature reveal 
and illustrate the principles and rules that should guide 
the speaker or writer in the art of expression. Hence 
the study of grammar is a search for such principles 
and rules, and a practical application of the same, in the 
expression of thought, oral or written. 

To become masters of their own language pupils 
must do more than the mere imitation- work required of 
a class in Language Lesson. If they are ever to use lan- 
guage intelligently, they must be led to understand the 
laws that underlie correct expression, because these are 
the criteria by which to judge correctness. 

The aim of this work is to make the science of lan- 
guage appear to the pupil in a reasonable and interesting- 
light. Its purpose is, first, to develop the principles by 
means of sentence-examples which contain them, then to 
require pupils to state the principles and to apply them 
at once to their own use of language. 

The book is inductive in method, and concise in 
statement. As one difficulty at a time is enough for the 
pupil, it presents for his study one subject at a time, 
and holds him to that subject till it is mastered. The 
pupil is continually required to illustrate what he has 
learned by writing sentences, and thus every principle 
learned by him is fixed in his memory and, above all, 
becomes by practice, a habit. 

The work begins with the treatment of the simple 
sentence as a whole, because it is the unit of discourse, 
and because words are classified only from their functions 
in the sentence. 

Instead of examples of false syntax to be corrected^ 



2 INTRODUCTION. 

exercises are given for the filling out of sentences by 
supplying the correct forms of words in blank spaces. 
Pupils should be encouraged to criticise their own verbal 
expressions,, to correct those that are faulty, and to give 
reasons for each correction. 

Sections 3 to 27 present the simple sentence, its prin- 
cipal elements., and its classification according to use. 

Sections 27 to 114 present the noun, pronoun, adjec- 
tive, verb, and adverb, including their classifications. 

Sections 114 to 216 present the various inflections of 
words, to denote person, number, gender, case, mode, 
tense, and voice. 

Sections 216 to 239 present the verbals, their modifiers 
and functions. 

Sections 239 to 260 present the preposition, the various 
phrases, their different forms and functions. 

Sections 260 to 295 present clauses, relative pronouns, 
connectives, interjections, and quotations with their func- 
tions. 

Sections 295 to 398 present the elements of the sen- 
tence, their classifications, according to form and accord- 
ing to function, including also sentence analysis. 

Simple exercises in composition are inserted through- 
out the book, to the end that the Science of Language 
may be made tributary to the Art of Expression. The 
book is a proper introduction to the Rand-McNally 
"Practical Grammar." 

Selections from the writings of Holmes, Longfellow, 
Franklin, Warner, Scudder, Burroughs, Frank Dempster 
Sherman, and Alice Cary, are presented for study by 
the permission of, and by arrangement with, the pub- 
lishers, Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin & Company. The 
extract from TarbelFs Life of Lincoln is offered through 
the courtesy of the publishers of McClure's Magazine. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Language — The Sentence, 9 

Language 9 

Thoughts and Words, . . 9 

Language Defined, 10 

The Sentence, 10 

The Sentence Defined, 10 

Kinds of Sentences, 12 

Sentences Classified, 12 

Rules for Punctuation, 13 

Essential Parts of the Sentence, 15 

Composition — The Elm, 16 

The Parts of Speech 18 

Classes of Words 18 

The Noun, 18 

The Classification of Nouns, .... .... 19 

The Common Noun, 19 

The Proper Noun, 20 

Rules for the Use of Capitals, 20 

Names, 23 

Initials, 23 

Abbreviations, ..." 24 

Superscriptions, 25 

Composition — An Old-fashioned Schoolroom, ... 27 

Contractions, 25 

The Pronoun, 29 

The Classification of Pronouns, 30 

The Kinds of Pronouns, 30 

Conifiosition — Wishes, 31 

The Adjective, 32 

Classes of Adjectives, 33 

Limiting Adjectives Classified, 36 

Possessives, 38 

Composition — The Buckwheat, 39 

The Verb, 41 

3 



4 CONTENTS. 

The Parts of Speech — The Verb — continued. page 

Verb Phrases, 41 

The Classification of Verbs, 42 

The Copulative Verb, 42 

Transitive Verbs, . 44 

Intransitive Verbs, 45 

The Series, ■ . . 47 

Composition — The Return of Rip Van Winkle, ... 47 

The Adverb, 48 

Classes of Adverbs, 49 

Adverbs Formed from Adjectives, • . . 51 

Composition — The Pets of Great Men, 52 

Inflection, 53 

Inflection of Nouns and Pronouns, 54 

Person Forms, 54 

Number Forms, 56 

Rules for the Formation of the Plurals, 57 

Composition — How Lincoln Studied Grammar, ... 60 

Number Forms of Personal Pronouns, 61 

Rules for the Use of the Personal Pronouns, . . . . 62 

Gender Forms, 63 

Methods of Distinguishing Gender, 65 

Gender Forms of Pronouns, ~T . 66 

Composition — How Robinson Crusoe Built a Boat, . 67 

Case Forms, 69 

Declension, 70 

Composition — The Martial Turkey, 72 

Inflection of Adjectives and Adverbs, 74 

Comparison of Adjectives, 74 

Degrees of Comparison, 74 

Comparison by adding r or er, 75 

Comparison by More and Most, 75 

Irregular Comparison, 75 

Adjectives that are Inflected to show Number, ... 77 

Comparison of Adverbs, 77 

Words Used as Adjectives or Adverbs, 78 

Composition — The Paragraph, 78 

Inflection of the Verb — Conjugation, 80 

Mode Forms, 80 

The Indicative Mode, 80 



CONTENTS. 5 

Inflection — of the Verb — continued. page 

The Potential Mode, 81 

The Subjunctive Mode, 81 

The Imperative Mode, 82 

Tense Forms, 82 

Tense Forms in all the Modes, 85 

Tabular Statement of the Forms of Mode and Tense, . . 86 

Composition — A Fancy, 87 

Auxiliary Verbs, . 88 

Rules for the Proper Use of the Auxiliaries, .... 89 

Regular and Irregular Verbs, 91 

Principal Parts of the Verb, 91 

Composition — The Country Maid and the Milk Pail, . 92 

Voice Forms, 93 

The Active and the Passive Voice, 94 

Person and Number Forms, 95 

Agreement of Verb and Subject, 96 

Summary of Inflection 102 

Composition — Heroism 103 

Parts of Speech — 

Verbals, 104 

Participles — Simple and Compound, 105 

Modifiers and Attributes of Participles, 106 

Uses of the Participles, 107 

Infinitives — Simple and Compound, 109 

Modifiers and Attributes of Infinitives, 110 

Uses of the Infinitive, Ill 

Composition — The Hound, 113 

Prepositions — Relation Words, 114 

List of the Principal Prepositions, 115 

Phrases, 116 

Classification of Phrases, 116 

Phrases Classified According to Form, 116 

Participial Phrases, - 117 

Infinitive Phrases, 117 

Prepositional Phrases, 117 

Phrases Classified According to Use, 118 

Substantive Phrases, 118 

Adjective Phrases, 119 

Adverbial Phrases, 120 

Composition — A Snowstorm, ........ 121 



6 CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Elements of the Sentence — 

Clauses, 122 

Classification of Clauses, 123 

Clauses Classified According to Rank, 123 

Clauses Classified According to Use, . . . . . , 123 

Substantive Clauses, 123 

Adjective Clauses, 124 

Adverbial Clauses, 125 

Parts of Speech — 

The Relative Pronoun, 126 

Relative Pronouns Classed as Simple and Compound, , 126 

Composition — The Apple-eater, 128 

Connectives, 129 

Connectives Classified, 131 

Interjections, 133 

Quotations, 134 

Rules to be Observed in the Use of Quotations, . . . 135 

Composition — The Wolf and the Lamb, 136 

Elements of the Sentence, 137 

The Elements Classified, 137 

Forms of Principal Elements, 139 

Classification of Subordinate Elements, 141 

Independent Elements, ~ ~ . . 145 

Letter Writing, 146 

Elements of the Sentence, Classified According to Struc- 
ture, 147 

Forms of the Subject, 148 

Forms of the Predicate, 149 

Forms of the Adjective Element, 150 

Forms of the Objective Element, 151 

Forms of Adverbial Element 152 

Arrangement of the Elements, 153 

Letter Writing, . . 154 

Business Letters * 154 

The Sentence — Its Classification, 156 

Sentences Classified According to Form, 156 

Analysis of the Sentence, 156 

The Simple Sentence, 156 

Simple Elements, 157 

Complex Elements, 157 



CONTENTS. 7 

The Sentence — Classification — Analysis of — continued. page 

Complex Elements (Objective Modifier), .... 158 

Compound Elements (Attribute), 159 

Compound Elements (Objective Modifier), .... 160 

Letter Writing, 161 

Formal and Informal Notes, 161 

Complex Elements (Tlie Participle as a Noun), . . . 162 
Complex Elements (The Participle as an Adjective 

Modifier), 163 

Complex Elements (The Infinitive as a Noun), . . . 164 

Complex Elements (The Copulative Verb), .... 166 

Independent Elements, 167 

The Complex Sentence, 168 

The Clause as an Adjective Element, 168 

The Clause as an Objective Element, 170 

The Clause as an Adverbial Element, 170 

Letter Writing, 171 

The Compound Sentence, 172 

The Complex Predicate, 173 

Selections for Analysis, 174 

Appendix, 177 

Conjugation, 177 

List of Irregular Verbs, 178 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR 



AND 



COMPOSITION. 



LANGUAGE — THE SENTENCE. 



LANGUAGE. 
1. Thoughts and Words. 

I am thinking of certain persons, and I express my 
thoughts briefly in writing, thus: 

1. Mary is writing. 3. George rang the bell. 

2. Lucy is sick. 4. Maud will sing. 

Briefly write your thoughts of birds, dogs, horses, 
and fishes. For example, 

1. Birds fly. 3. Fishes swim. 

2. Dogs bark. 4. Horses run. 

Write your thoughts of a peach, an apple, a bench, 
a knife. For example, 

1. A peach is sweet. 3. The bench is long. 

2. The apple is sour. 4. Is the knife sharp? 

What have you used to express your thoughts? 
Yes, words are used to express thought. 



10 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

2. Language Denned. 

The means by which thoughts are expressed in words 
is called Language. Language may be oral or written; 
that is, expressed in spoken words or in words made by 
characters. 

The language we use is the English language. 

THE SENTENCE. 

3. Study the following groups of words: 

1. Gold is a metal. J+. Diamonds rare. 

2. Lead heavy. 5. Precious stones. 

3. Iron is useful. 6. Pearls are beautiful. 

Which of the above groups express complete thought? 
Which do not? 

1. in the fields 4. our homes 

2. a vegetable 5. some days 

3. are a fine fruit 6". birds in the branches 

Do the above groups of words make complete sense? 
Do they express complete thoughts? 

Words may be added to each of them to complete 
the sense, thus: 



1. Farmers work in the fields. 4- Our homes are 

2. Corn is a vegetable. 5. Some days must be dark. 

3. Peaches are a fine fruit. 6. Birds sing in the branches. 

4. The Sentence Defined. 

A group of words so arranged as to express a com- 
plete thought is called a Sentence. 

Therefore we may say that a Sentence is the expression 
of a complete thought in zvords. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



11 



Rule : The first letter of every sentence must be a 
capital. 

EXERCISES. 

5. Which of the following groups of words are 

sentences? 



Boys enjoy coasting. 6. 

Fishes in the sea. 7. 

Girls love music. 8. 

Deer beautiful animals, 9. 

Words pay no debts. 10. 



Along the brooksides. 
The long wide streets. 
Some money is made of gold. 
The air loaded with perfumes. 
The winds bring perfume. 



6. Rearrange the following so as to form sentences: 

1. trusted honest are men 

2. children friends lack no good 

3. den in the was Daniel lion's 

4. not fear with you am I 

5. Oh yes ! mention we her always 



7. Supply words necessary to make sentences of the 



following : 



The mountains 

are high and grand 

have disappeared 

The moon 

The days 

will enrich you 

many victories 

Robert and Mary 

The music of the organ ■ 
the time for rest 



8. Write in brief sentences your thoughts about 
the following: 



horses 
oxen 



birds 
fishes 



school 
vacation 



fair days 
dark days 



12 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

9. Kinds of Sentences. 

1. Birds sing in the spring. 

2. Will the birds sing in the winter? 

3. Do not frighten the pretty bird. 

4. Feed the poor hungry bird. 

5. O, how merrily the birds do sing ! 

Does each of the above groups of words express a 
thought? Are all those groups sentences? Which one 
tells something? Which one is the expression of a 
question? Which one is the expression of a command? 
Which one is the expression of a request that some- 
thing be done? Which one expresses a thought with 
great feeling? 

Sentences used in telling something are called 
Declarative, because to state or declare means to tell. 

Sentences used in asking questions are called Inter- 
rogative, because to interrogate means to ask. 

Sentences used in commanding are called Imperative, 
because imperative means commanding. 

Sentences that express great feeling are called 
Exclamatory, because to exclaim means to cry out. 

10. Sentences Classified. 

Sentences are classified according to their use, 
as Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, and Exclam- 
atory. 

A Declarative Sentence is a sentence used in stating 
a fact; as, 

1. Some days must be dark and dreary. 

2. God will remember the world. 

3. Hubert is gathering pond lilies. 

An Interrogative Sentence is a sentence used in 
a question; as, 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 13 

1. Must some days be dark and dreary? 

2. Will God remember the world? 

3. Do you see the old farmhouse? 

An Imperative Sentence is a sentence that expresses 
a command or an earnest request; as, 

1. Go to thy rest, fair child. 3. Always do your best. 

2. Obey your parents. 

An Exclamatory Sentence is a sentence that expresses 
great feeling; as, 

1. Oh! how fast it rains! 3. You are a cowardly wretch! 

2. The child is dying ! 

11. Rules for Punctuation. 

1. Close every declarative and every imperative sen- 
tence tuith a period ( . ). 

2. Close every interrogative sentence tuith an inter- 
rogation point ( ? ). 

3. Close every exclamatory sentence tuith an excla- 
mation point ( ! ). 

EXERCISES. 

12. Tell which of the following sentences are 
declarative, which interrogative, which imperative, and 
which exclamatory; also capitalize and punctuate the 
same: 

1. summer has come 

2. will winter bring snow 

3. the clouds are fleecy 

4. can you paint a cloud 

5. how black the clouds are 

6. the bells are ringing 

7. how mournfully the bells toll 

8. the air may be weighed 

9. can the sun be weighed 

10. thou too sail on O Ship of State 



14 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



13. Write a declarative sentence about each of the 
following: 



stars 


boats 


stores 


clouds 


water 


flowers 


rain 


sailors 


children 



14. Change the following declarative sentences to 
interrogative: 



1. 

3. 

5. 
6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 



The sunbeams dance. 

Clouds float in the air. 

Bread nourishes the body. 

Students will learn grammar. 

The leaves are falling. 

Columbus was a navigator. 

Happier days will come. 

The water of the ocean is salt. 

Clara was here just now. 

The largest trees grow in California. 



15. Write interrogative sentences about the follow- 
ing subjects: 



Washington 
Lincoln 



Grant 
flowers 



grass 
orchards 



16. Add words necessary to make imperative sen- 
tences (commands) of the following: 

1. my slate. 

2. the poor bird. 

3. your lessons. 

If.. kind and polite. 

5. kind words to all. 

6. carol of the birds. 



17. Imagine you are teachers, and then write four 
imperative sentences commanding your pupils to do or 
not to do certain things. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 15 

18. Write exclamatory sentences about the follow- 
ing subjects : 

the burning vessel what hungry birds 

the beautiful stars the lame dog 

the vivid lightning what a patriot 

19. Essential Parts of the Sentence. 

1. Money | pays debts. 3. Wisdom | lingers. 

2. Knowledge | comes. 4. Still waters | run deep. 

Copy tlie above sentences, and notice that each con- 
sists of two parts. Which part states that about which 
something is said? Which part tells what is said? 

Every sentence must have two parts — that about 
which something is said (asserted), and that which is 
said. The first is called the Subject, and the second 
the Predicate, thus: 

The Subject of a sentence is that about wliicli 
something is asserted. 

The Predicate of a sentence is that tvhich is asserted 
of the subject. 

1. The minstrel was infirm. 3. Our houses are our castles. 

2. The days grow warm. 4. The clouds are gray. 

EXERCISES. 

20. Mention the subject and the predicate of the 
following sentences : 

1. Better days will come. 
Indigo is blue. 
Jane studies history. 
Horses draw wagons. 

5. Merchants sell goods. 

6. Large houses are expensive. 
Are soldiers patriots? 
Can you paint a lily? 



16 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

9. Were the floods very destructive? 

10. Are the rose and the lily equally beautiful? 

11. Should we love our enemies? 

21. Write sentences using the following as subjects: 



Gen. Sherman 


raindrops 


dark days 


Charles Dickens 


the robin 


happy girls 


diamonds 


the haymakers 




22. Write sentences using the 


following as pre< 


cates : 






are dark 


hunt rats 


was a soldier 


is black 


are useful 


made a speech 


are cold 


is an inventor 


told a story 


ripples along 







23. Write three sentences about home, and underline 
the subjects once and the predicates twice. 



COMPOSITION. 

24. Study the following composition and observe 
the different kinds of sentences used: 

THE ELM. 

Have you ever noticed the elm? Look at the next one you see. 
The American elm is one of the most magnificent trees of the 
United States. From a root which in old trees spreads much above 
the surface of the ground, the trunk rises to a great height in a 
single stem. Here it usually divides into two or three main 
branches, which curve off easily. How stately are these drooping 
branches ! 

The elm grows from the Great Lakes to Georgia, and from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific. Have you heard of the Washington Elm in 
Cambridge, Mass. ? It is the most famous elm in this country. 
Under its shade Washington drew his sword on first taking com- 
mand of the American Army. What memories cling to that tree! 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 17 

How many declarative sentences are there in this 
composition? What are the imperative sentences? The 
exclamatory? Point ont the subject and the predicate 
of each sentence. (See Section 19.) 

How many words are used in the first sentence? In 
the second? In the other sentences? What determines 
the number of words in each sentence? (See Section 4.) 

25. Following the outline below, write what you 
know about the maple, or the beach, or the oak. Leave 
a margin of half an inch on each side of your page. 
Notice that this outline is divided into two parts. Why? 

Otjtlese. 

1. Description — size, color, general appearance. The branches, 
the leaves, and the trunk. 

2. Where can we find this tree? When do the leaves come 
out? Anything else that you have noticed about this tree. 

26. Following the outline below, write what you 
know of the sentence. See that your sentences are 
closely joined in thought, one with another. 

Outline. 

1. General definition and two examples. Tell how many 
classes you have found, and explain the use of each class. Give 
examples. 

2. The parts, subject and predicate. Give examples. 



THE PAETS OP SPEECH. 



27. Classes of Words. 

Beautiful daisies peep up everywhere. 

In the above sentence, what word is used as a name? 
What word is used to assert action? What word 
tells the hind of daisies? What word states lioio the 
daisies peep? How many kinds of words are used in 
this sentence? 

These four kinds of words, together with four other 
kinds, not here mentioned, embrace all the classes ever 
used in making sentences. Hence, according as they 
are used in the sentence, words are divided into the 
following eight classes: 

Nouns. Adjectives. Adverbs. Connectives. 

Pronouns. Verbs. Prepositions. Interjections. 

The above are called the Parts of Speech. They are 
the parts into which all written or spoken language 
(speech) is divided, just as ears, arms, and legs are parts 
of the human body. 

THE NOUN. 

28. Read the following sentences- and observe each 
word used as a name: 

1. Ruth gave Esther a pencil. 

2. Ostriches are found in Africa. 

3. Study improves the mind. 

4. "The world is full of poetry; 

The air is living with its spirit." 

18 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



19 



Mention the words used as names in these sentences. 
Which words are names of persons? What word is the 
name of a country? Which are names of objects you 
can see? Which are names of things you can think of 
but can not see? 

Words like world, poetry, ostriches, Africa, air, mind, 
spirit, Ruth, Esther, and pencil, used as names, are called 
Nouns. 

A Noun is a word used as a name of anything; that 
is, of a place, object, or idea. The word noun means 
name. 

The Classification of Nouns. 
29. Find seventeen nouns in this list of words: 



William 


shallow 


bicycle 


stars 


salt 


Europe 


paper 


beautiful 


bright 


water 


European 


thin 


oyster 


statue 


city 


ocean 


soft 


raw 


marble 


Chicago 


deep 


chariot 


road 


peach 


family 


river 


large 


long 


sweet 


flock 



What nouns in the above list of words are names that 
belong to many objects of the same kind ; that is, to a 
class of objects? 

What nouns are names of particular persons? What 
of particular places? 

Nouns like ocean, river, paper, chariot, etc., are called 
Common Nouns. Nouns like William, Europe, Chicago, 
are called Proper Nouns. 

All nouns are included in the two classes, Common 
and Proper. 

30. The Common Noun. 

A Common Noun is a name common to all of a class 
of objects; as, box, pen. 



20 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE. 

31. Write four nouns that are names of things kept 
in a grocery. 

Write five nouns that are names of different vegeta- 
bles. 

Write five nouns that are names of different kinds of 
cloth. 

Write three nouns that are names of materials of 
which money is made. 

Write five nouns that are names of tools used by a 
blacksmith. 

Write five nouns that are names of things you can 
think about but can not see. 

32. The Proper Noun. 

A Proper Noun is the name of a particular person, 
place, or thing; as, Henry, Mabel, Chicago, Ohio. 

Obs. — The word proper means one's own; hence a proper name 
is one's own name. 

33. Rules for the Use of Capitals. 

1. Begin all proper nouns with a capital; as, 

George Washington. Thomas Jefferson. 

2. Begin with a capital all titles of honor and of 
respect when applied to particular persons; as, 

Hon. Charles Sumner. Mrs. Stowe. 

3. Begin icith a capital letter the names of the days 
of the iveek, the months, and the principal holidays; as, 

Christmas comes on Wednesday, December 25. 
Decoration Day comes on Monday, May 30. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 21 



EXERCISES. 



34. Write five nouns that are names of particular 
cities, and five that are names of particular States. 

Write four sentences, using proper nouns as subjects. 
Write four sentences, using common nouns as subjects. 

35. Copy the following sentences and underline all 
nouns: 

1. A good name is a great treasure. 

2. Humboldt discovered tlie potato in Mexico. 

3. A word of three syllables is a trisyllable. 

4. Nature teaches beasts to know their friends. 

5. Music is the medicine of the mind. 

6. Many precious stones come from Africa. 

7. Should every line of poetry begin with a capital? 

8. A bobolink and a robin sang a sweet duet. 

9. Fame is the fragrance of heroic deeds. 

10. Balmoral is the summer residence of Queen Victoria. 

36. Use the following nouns in sentences, either in 
the subject or in the predicate: 



William 


woodlands 


Mrs. Curtis 


watch 


trees 


diamonds 


lion 


noise 


Miss Daily 



37. Under common nouns are usually classed Col- 
lective, Abstract, and Verbal Nouns. 

1. A committee of five was appointed. 

2. Our army was victorious. 

3. We saw a fleet of ships. 

Is committee the name of an individual or a collection 
of individuals? Does army mean a soldier or a collection 
of soldiers? Of what is fleet the name? 



22 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Nouns like committee, army, and fleet, that name a 
collection of objects, are called Collective Nouns. 

1. Honesty is respected. 3. Goodness is its own reward. 

2. Lying is a great vice. 

Do you know an honest man ? What word is the 
name for the quality that an honest person has? Is 
honesty the name of a person or a quality of a person? 
Is lying the name of an action? 

Words like honesty and goodness, that name a quality 
of an object considered by itself, are called Abstract 
Nouns. Nouns like lying, that name actions, are called 
Verbal Nouns. 

A Collective Noun is the name of a collection of 
objects. 

An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality considered 
by itself. 

A Verbal Noun is the name of an action. 

EXERCISES. 

38. Mention the collective, abstract, and verbal 
nouns in the following: 

1. The team has run away. 

2. A herd of cattle is passing. 

3. The family mourned for the dead mother. 

4. Stealing is a crime. 

5. Riding is a pleasant pastime. 

6. Beauty is admired. 

7. The horse has great strength. 

8. We overtook a band of thieves. 

9. Coasting is fine sport. 

10. He gave me a bunch of grapes. 

11. Our class consists of ten pupils. 

12. Pride goeth before a fall. 

13. The congregation rose and sang. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 23 

14. All the hearts of men were softened 
By the pathos of his music; 
For he sang of peace and freedom, 
Sang of beauty, love, and longing; 
Sang of death and life undying. 

— Longfellow. 

39. Fill the following blanks with appropriate words; 
then construct sentences, using four of these nouns: 



crowd of 


suite of - 


regiment of 


crew of - 


swarm of ■ 


gang of ■ 


bevy of 


squad of 


40. Names. 





Write your full name. 
"Write the name of your father. 
Write the name of your brother. 
Write the name of your sister. 

Which part of each of these names is the same for 
all the members of the family? 

The last part of a name is called the Family name, 
or Surname; as, 

Abraham Lincoln. Jefferson Davis. 

The first part of a name is called the Given name, 
or Christian name; as, 

Curtis. Gromv Cleveland. 



41. Initials. 

Write the name of a person who has two or three 
Christian names. 

Eewrite it, using only the first letter of each of the 
Christian names. 



24 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Write the name of this country. 

Rewrite it, using only the first letter of each part of 
the name. 

The first letter of a word is called its Initial. 
Rule: Initials of proper nouns should be capital Ut- 
ters; as, 

W. H. H. Holdredge. 
Go to Cincinnati, O. 

Write the initials of your own name. 
Write the initials of the name of your grocer; your 
physician. 

Write the initials of the names of two statesmen. 

42. Abbreviations. 

Dr. Stanford visited Gen. and Mrs. Smith in Washington, D. C. 

In this sentence the first word is read Doctor, but 
is written with the first and last letters only. Gen., 
Mrs., and D. C, are short ways of writing General, 
Mistress (pronounced Missis), and District of Columbia, 
and are called Abbreviations. 

Rule: Begin abbreviations, generally, with a capital, 
and close them with a period. 

EXERCISES. 

43. Write the following abbreviations, placing after 
each its equivalent: 



Mr. 


Mister. 


A. D. 


In the year of our Lord. 


Dr. 


Doctor or Debtor. 


A. M. 


Before noon. 


Col. 


Colonel. 


P. M. 


Afternoon. 


Maj. 


Major. 


B. C. 


Before Christ. 


St. 


Saint or Street. 


M. D. 


Doctor of Medicine. 


Av. 


Avenue. 


R. R. 


Railroad. 


Capt. 


Captain. 


U. S. 


United States. 


Gov. 


Governor. 


C. 0. D 


. Cash (or Collect) on Delb 



Pres. 


President. 


P. 


S. 


Sec. 


Secretary. 


P. 


0. 


Prof. 


Professor. 


M. 




Rev. 


Reverend. 


M. 


c. 


Hon. 


Honorable. 


N. 


H 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 25 

Postscript. 

Post Office. 

Noon. 

Member of Congress. 

New Hampshire. 

Commit these abbreviations to memory. Yon may 
use abbreviations for the days of the week and the 
months of the year, except May, June, and July. 

Use at least six of the above in sentences. 

44. Superscriptions. 

Write your name and address, thus: 

Gertrude E. Mason, 

Clinton, 

Illinois. 
Alice R. Reynolds, 

802 Warren Av., 
Chicago, 

Illinois. 

Notice the use of the comma and the period. 

Write the name and address of a friend in some city 
in this State. 

Write the name and address of the Governor of your 
State; of the Mayor of your town; of two members of 
your State Legislature. 

A name and address written as above, when placed 
upon an envelope, is called a Super 'scription. 

CONTRACTIONS. 

45. I'm ready. We're going. They're playing. 

Notice in the above that letters are omitted from cer- 
tain words, and that the apostrophe (') is used to show 
such omission. Such words are called Contractions. 



26 PRIMABT GRAMMAR. 

Contractions are shortened words in which the apos- 
trophe is used; as, it's for it is. 

EXERCISES. 

46. 1. Copy the following allowable contractions. 
Tell what words are united, and what letters are omitted: 

1. I've been to Boston. 5. He'll tell the truth. 

2. We're going to Canton. 6. There's no place like home. 

3. They're both truants. 7. I thought 'twas right. 

4. It's too bad. 8. What's the matter ? 

2. Write the above sentences, using the words in 
full instead of the contractions. 

47. 1. Copy the following contractions. Tell what 
words are united with not to form contractions, and 
where the apostrophe is placed: 

1. She isn't here. 3. He doesn't know. 

2. Aren't you ready ? 4. I didn't think. 

When not is united with a verb, a negative contraction 
is made. 

2. Write sentences using the following words with 
not in full: 



is was 


has 


had 


does 


could 


are were 


have 


do 


did 


would 



3. Write sentences using the above words with not 
in the contracted form. 

Jf. Write three declarative sentences containing, (1) 
wasn't, (2) weren't, (3) doesn't. 

5. Write three interrogative sentences containing, 
(1) ivasn't, (2) weren't, (3) doesn't. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 27 

6. Write five sentences using proper contractions. 

Obs.— Contractions should be used sparingly, especially in 
writing. Can't, sha'n't, and won't- may be used in conversation, 
both oral and written. 

CAUTIONS. 

1. Never use ain't, hain't, nor tain't. 

2. Never use wa'n't for wasn't or weren't. 

3. Never use don't for doesn't when you speak or write of 
one person or thing. 

4. Avoid the use of mayn't, mightn't, mustn't, and 'twill. 



COMPOSITION. 

48. Study the following. Lay it aside and repro- 
duce it in language of your own: 

AN OLD-FASHIONED SCHOOLROOM. 

Now imagine yourselves, my children, in Master Ezekiel 
Cheever's schoolroom. It is a large, dingy room, and is lighted 
by windows that turn on hinges and have little diamond- shaped 
panes of glass. The scholars sit on long benches with desks before 
them. At one end of the room is a great fireplace, so very spacious 
that there is room enough for three or four boys to stand in each of 
the chimney corners. 

It is a winter's day when we take our peep into the schoolroom. 
See what great logs of wood have been rolled into the fireplace, and 
what a broad, bright blaze goes leaping up the chimney ! And every 
few minutes a vast cloud of smoke is puffed into the room, which 
sails slowly over the heads of the scholars, until it gradually settles 
upon the walls and ceilings. 

Now, do you see the venerable schoolmaster, severe in aspect, 
with a black skullcap on his head, like an ancient Puritan, and the 
snow of his white beard drifting down to his very girdle? What 
boy could dare to play, or whisper, or even glance aside from his 



28 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

work, while Master Cheever is on the lookout from behind his 
spectacles . For such offenders, if any such there be, a rod of birch 
is hanging over the fireplace, and a heavy ferule lies on the master's 
desk. 

— Nathaniel Hawthorne. 

Mention and classify all the nouns in the above. 

Notice that in this story the sentences are in three 
principal groups or divisions. Study each group carefully. 

Do the sentences in each of these divisions all relate 
to the same topic of the subject? 

These divisions in a composition are called Paragraphs. 

A Paragraph is one of the divisions of a prose com- 
position, and may consist of a single sentence or a 
group of sentences. 

It should contain nothing but what relates to some 
one part of the subject. 

49. Following the outline below, write a short com- 
position on "Our Schoolroom/' Use brief sentences, 
and divide your matter as in the outline. 

Outline. 

1. Description — size, doors, windows, curtains, etc. 

2. Furniture — desks, maps, globes, reference library. 

3. Other things you think it should contain. 

50. Kecall to mind what you have learned of nouns; 
then, following the outline below, write what you know 
of them in the form of a composition. 

Outline. 

1. Definition — what classes? Define each class, and give 
examples. 

2. Common nouns — how many classes of? Define each class, 
and give examples. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 29 

THE PRONOUN. 

51. Mention the words in the following sentences 
that are needlessly repeated: 

1. Lilian loves Lilian's mother. 

2. Hazel says Hazel will sing. 

3. John said that John would write. 

If.. Mary told Henry to lead Henry's sister. 

Rewrite the above sentences in such a manner as to 
avoid the needless repetition of words. 

1. Lilian loves her mother. 

2. Hazel says "J will sing." 

3. John said that lie would write. 

4. Mary told Henry to lead his sister. 

What word in the first sentence takes the place of 
Lilian? What word takes the place of Hazel? What 
words take the place of John and Henry ? 

Robert asks, " Who will lead?" 

What word in this sentence is used to ask for a 
person not known by the speaker? 

Words like her, I, lie, his, and who are called Pro- 
nouns. The word pronoun means for a noun. 

A Pronoun is a ivord used instead of a noun; as, 

1. Henry said he would attend oar school. 

2. Martha found her brother in his study. 

The noun for which the pronoun stands is called its 
Antecedent; as, 

1. Martha found her brother in his study. 

2. The boys took their guns with them. 

3. Jennie is happy because she is good. 

4. The maid washed her dishes and put them in the closet. 



30 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

The antecedent is sometimes expressed , sometimes 
understood. 

The Classification of Peonouns. 
52. The Kinds of Pronouns. 

There are three kinds or classes of proDOuns: Per- 
sonal, Interrogative, and Relative. 



53. A Personal 


Pronoun is one 


representing 


the 


speaker, the person 


spoken to, or the 


person or thing 


spoken of. 








The personal pronouns are: 






1. Simple ; as. 


j I, me, mine, 
[ we, us, ours. 






The speaker 






The person 


j thou, thee, thine, 
1 ye, you, yours. 




spoken to. 






/ he, him, his, 


_ 




Person or thing 


she, her, hers, 






spoken of. 




it, 










. they, them, theirs. 




2. Compound those that add self or 


selves; as, 




myself 


thyself 


yourself 




himself 


herself 


itself 




ourselves 


your 


selves 


themselves 





54. An Interrogative Pronoun is used in asking 
questions j as. 

Who has my slate ? What will you have ? 
Which is correct ? Whom do you see ? 

Obs. — Relative pronouns are considered after the treatment 
of Clauses. See page 126. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 31 



EXERCISES. 



55. Mention the pronouns in the following sen- 
tences and name the antecedent of each: 

1. Joseph brought his book and laid it on the table. 

2. La Fayette volunteered his services. 

3. Sarah carelessly lost her book on her way to school. 

4. The town lost its mayor, and the school its best friend. 

5. The girls asked their mother to help them. 

6. Donald, have you found your pencil ? 

56. Name the antecedents of all the pronouns 
found in the examples on pages 29, 30, and 31. 



COMPOSITION. 

57. Copy this poem, and notice that the first word 
of each line begins with a capital: 

WISHES. 

I often sit and wish that I 
Could be a kite up in the sky, 
And ride upon the breeze, and go 
Whatever way it chanced to blow. 
Then I could look beyond the town, 
And see the river winding down, 
And follow all the ships that sail 
Like me before the merry gale, 
Until at last with them I came 
To some place with a foreign name. 
— From Little-Folk Lyrics by Frank Dempster Sherman. 

Each line of a poem is called a verse. How many 
verses in this poem? 

A number of verses grouped together is called a 
stanza. How many stanzas in this poem? 



32 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Notice the words in each rhyme. How many verses 
are there to each rhyme? 

How many nouns can you find? Underline each 
noun once ; each pronoun twice. 

This little poem tells of what wish? What would 
the ivisher do if he were a kite? Do you ever wish to 
be something you are not? To travel and see things 
and places of which you read? 

Write the little poem in such a way that it will be 
a plain prose story, without verse or rhyme. 

Write a story of ten or more lines telling some of 
your wishes. 

The following wishes may be suggestive : 

To be a learned man. To be a millionaire. 

To sail the seas. To be a physician. 

58. Following the outline below, write what you 
know of the pronoun. 

Outline. 

1. Definition — give examples. 

2. Classification — define each class and give examples of each. 

3. Why they are used. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 

59. Study carefully the following sentences and 
mention all the nouns : 

1. Healthy boys enjoy outdoor games. 

2. Hear the sparrow's happy song ! 

3. The birds sought their leafy shelter. 

4. Have you read the fourth stanza? 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 33 

Would the nouns boys and games, standing alone, 
include all boys of every kind, and all kinds of games? 
What words used with boys and games change their- 
meaning by making them include certain kinds of boys 
and games, and exclude other kinds? Words used like 
healthy and outdoor are said to limit the meaning of 
nouns. To limit means to bound or confine. 

What word limits the noun song? What words limit 
the nouns birds and shelter? What words limit the noun 
stanza? 

Words like healthy, outdoor, happy, the, leafy, and 
fourth, used to limit the meaning of nouns, are called 
Adjectives. 

An Adjective is a word used to qualify or to limit a 
noun or pronoun j as, 

1. The foolish old crow tried to sing. 

2. Two students study English literature. 

3. The melancholy autumn days have come. 
4- A free people should be educated. 

5. Every honest American citizen should vote. 

6. Lincoln emancipated four million African slaves. 

7. Reading makes a full man, writing an exact man. 

8. Four fast Kentucky horses drew the chariot. 

60. Classes of Adjectives. 

In sentence eight of the examples given above, what 
adjectives limit horses by denoting the hind, or quality, 
of the animals mentioned? What adjective limits horses, 
and what limits chariot, without denoting kind, or 
quality? 

Adjectives, like fast and Kentucky, used to limit by 
denoting quality, are called Qualifying; those, like four 
and the, used to limit without denoting quality, are called 
Limiting. Thus adjectives are classified as Qualifying 
and Limiting. 



34 PRIMABT GRAMMAR. 

61. A Qualifying Adjective is one that limits the 
meaning of a noun or pronozin by denoting quality; as, 

1. We sell large, ripe, juicy oranges. 

2. He was an honorable man, an amiable gentleman. 

3. We plucked four large oranges. 

4. The breezy morn died in the silent noon. 

Adjectives derived from proper nouns are called 
Proper Adjectives, and should begin with capital 
letters; as, 

1. We study English law. 

2. The German language is rich in literature. 

3. We have a span of Mexican ponies. 

EXERCISE. 

62. Form a proper adjective from each of the fol- 
lowing proper nouns : 

America Europe Greece China France 

Asia England Rome Christ 

63. A Limiting Adjective is one that limits a noun 
or pronoun without denoting quality; as, 

1. We have studied the first three lessons. 

2. This apple is mine, that (apple) is yours. 

3. I have taught you many things. 
l h A feic stories I will tell you. 

5. We have much news to relate. 

Obs. — The word limit means to restrict — to draw a boundary 
line around. All adjectives limit nouns or pronouns. In this 
book the words limit and limiting are generally used instead of 
the words describe and descriptive. 

EXERCISES. 

64. Classify the adjectives in the following sentences; 
tell what each one limits : 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 35 

1. The groves were God's first temples. 

2. That question is now settled. 

3. Such punishment is severe. 

4. The mountains showed their gray heads. 

5. So the little coral workers, 

By their slow but constant motion, 
Have built up those pretty islands 
In the distant dark-blue ocean. 

6. Up from the meadows rich with corn, 
Clear in the cool September morn, 
The clustered spires of Frederick stand 
Green-walled ~bj the hills of Maryland. 

65. Write sentences using the following nouns lim- 
ited by one or more adjectives: 

wind oak statue speaker task 

storm elm lightning soldiers 

66. Write sentences using the following words as 
adiectives: 



angry 


shady 


few 


tall 


dead 


all 


merry 


small 


slow 


many 


dark 


tame 



67. Combine with each of the following as many 
adjectives as you can that appropriately limit their 
meaning: 

lane store moon river fields 

pasture star comet ocean 

68. Name adjectives of an opposite meaning from 
the following: 

many bright noisy polite feeble 

busy dark brave careful 



36 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

69. Limiting Adjectives Classified. 

Limiting adjectives are classified as Article, Pro- 
nominal, Numeral, and Interrogative. 

The Article Adjectives are a or an and the. A and 
an designate some one, but no particular, object, and are 
called Indefinite Articles. 

The designates a particular object or objects and is 
called a Definite Article. 

A is used before a consonant sound, and an before a 
vowel sound; as, 

a pen a cat a, map a unit 

an aid an elk an inch an arch 

EXERCISE. 

70. Read orally the following words, using before 
each the correct indefinite article: 



hat 


university 


honor 


orchard 


onion 


knife 


plough 


box 


honest 


envelope 


day 


hero 


gem 


good 


hunter 


oak 


orphan 


union 


ox 


eulogy 



71. A Pronominal Adjective is a limiting adjective 
which, standing alone, represents a noun understood; as, 

1. This hat is mine; that is yours. 

2. Some diamonds are white; others are blue. 

3. All will go; none will object. 

4. Many will hear; few will heed. 

5. You may do either; I will do neither. 

6. Will you take one or both ? 

Write four similar sentences, each containing a pro- 
nominal adjective. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 37 

EXERCISES. 

72. In the following sentences point out the limit- 
ing adjectives, and tell which are pronominal: 

1. I bought some horses; you have some. 

2. Many diamonds are yellow; few are blue. 

3. All men should vote; none should object. 

It.. You may buy either lot; I will buy neither. 

5. Can you solve that problem? This is easy. 

6. Have you another book? Give me one. 

7. Here are both books; you may have either. 

73. Write four sentences, using in each a pronominal 
adjective, and four using the same word as a limiting- 
adjective. 

74. Classify the adjectives in the following sen- 
tences, and tell what each limits: 

1. The dead leaves are falling. 

2. That is a valuable Swiss watch. 

3. This mighty oak shelters the tired child. 

4. Our forest trees are homes for the birds. 

5. It is an interesting old stone castle. 

6. The cold March wind is blowing. 

7. This is a complete history of English art. 

75. Write sentences containing the following nouns 
modified by one limiting adjective and two or more 
qualifying adjectives: Model: 

Two long dreary weeks. 

lark roses fruit Indians lambs 

bees clouds rogues gentleman 

76. A Numeral Adjective is one that limits by 
denoting number; as, 



38 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

1. Four boats are anchored in the bay. 

2. He has a coach and six horses. 

3. Read the first two stanzas. 

4. Four hundred years have passed. 

5. This is the one-hundredth anniversary of Luther's birth. 

6. The Pope wears a triple crown. 

7. He has a three-fold object in this. 

EXERCISE. 

77. Write sentences using the following numeral 
adjectives: 

one three double 

first third two-fold 

78. An Interrogative Adjective is one used in ask- 
ing questions. The interrogative adjectives are which, 
whose, and what. 

1. Which book shall we read? 

2. Whose composition is the best? 

3. What pictures did you see? 

Write three sentences illustrating the use of the 
interrogative adjectives. 

79. Possessives. 

1. John's book is interesting. 3. Julia loves her books. 

2. John reads his book. 

Whose book is interesting? John reads what book? 
Julia loves what books ? What part of speech is John's f 
his ? her f John's, his, and her all limit nouns by denoting 
what ? As what two parts of speech is John's used ? 
his? her? 

Nouns and pronouns like John's, his, and her, used 
to limit nouns, are called Possessives. They have a 
double office in the sentence, that of noun or pronoun 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 39 

and of adjective, and are called Possessive Nouns or 
Possessive Pronouns. 

Obs. — Possessives are generally used of persons only, or of things 
which for the time we imagine to be persons. 

EXERCISES. 

80. Mention the possessives in the following and 
tell what each limits: 

1. Jupiter's temple was in Rome. 

2. We saw Victoria's castle. 
3.. Arthur flew his kite. 

Jf.. The boys saw their opportunity. 

5. Our hopes, our fears, are all with thee. 

6. Woman's work is never done. 

7. Franklin wrote with a patriot's devotion. 

8. He died a soldier's death. 

9. Our harps we left by Babel's streams. 

81. Write four sentences, using a possessive in each. 



COMPOSITION. 

82. Study the following composition. Notice each 
adjective and what it limits: 

THE BUCKWHEAT. 

Often, after a thunder-storm, when one passes a field in which 
buckwheat is growing, it appears quite blackened and singed. 
Whence has it received that? The countryman says, "It got that 
from lightning." But I will tell you what the Sparrow told me 
about it, and the Sparrow heard it from an old Willow Tree 
which stood by a Buckwheat field. 

On all the fields round about, grain was growing, not only rye 
and barley, but also oats; yes, the most capital oats, which, when 
ripe, look like a number of little yellow canary birds sitting upon 
a spray. The grain stood smiling, and the richer an ear was, the 
deeper did it bend in pious humility. 



40 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

But the Buckwheat, in. the field exactly opposite to the old 
"Willow Tree, did not bend at all, like the rest of the grain, but 
stood up proudly and stiffly. 

"I'm as rich as any corn-ear," said he. "Moreover, I'm very 
much handsomer; my flowers are beautiful as the blossoms of the 
apple tree. It's quite a delight to look upon me and mine. Do you 
know anything more splendid than we are, you old Willow Tree?" 

And the Willow Tree nodded his head, just as if he would 
have said, "Yes, that's true enough!" 

But the Buckwheat spread itself out in mere vainglory, and 
said, "The stupid tree! he's so old that the grass grows in his 
body." 

Now a terrible storm came on; but the Buckwheat stood erect 
in its pride. 

"Shut up your flowers and bend your leaves," said the old 
Willow Tree. "Don't look up at the lightning when the cloud 
bursts; even men do not do that, for in the lightning one may 
look into heaven, but the light dazzles even men; and what would 
happen to us if we dared to do so — we, the plants of the field, 
that are much less worthy than they?" 

"Much less worthy!" cried the Buckwheat in its pride and 
vainglory. "Now I'll just look straight up into heaven." 

When the storm had passed by, the flowers and the crops 
stood in the still, pure air, quite refreshed by the rain; but the 
Buckwheat, burned coal-black by the lightning, was now like a 
dead weed upon the field. 

— Adapted from Hans Christian Andersen. 

Lay aside the book and reproduce the above story, 
using other appropriate adjectives in place of the ones 
given. 

83. Write a composition on what you have learned 
of the adjective, following the outline given below. 

Outline. 

1. Definition. Examples. 

2. Classes of adjectives, with examples of each. 

3. A and an — how used? 

4. Proper adjectives — how formed? 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 41 

THE VERB. 

84. Observe the several parts of speech in the 
following sentences : 

1. The birds sing. 4- The child sleeps. 

2. Frogs leap. 5. The boy is happy. 

3. Sunlight gleams. 6. He plays ball. 

Which words are nonns? Which are adjectives? 
Which is a pronoun ? 

Which words assert action? "Which word in sentence 
four asserts a condition or state of the subject ? In sen- 
tence five, what word asserts mere existence without 
action? 

Words like sing, leap, gleams, sleeps, is, and plays are 
called Verts. 

A Verb is a ivord used to assert action, being, or state. 

To assert means to affirm — to join to the subject what 
is said of it. 

If the verbs be omitted from the above sentences, 
would anything be said about the birds, or frogs, or 
other subjects? 

Every sentence must contain a predicate; every pred- 
icate must contain a verb. 

85. Verb-Plirases. 

Some verbs consist of several words, called a Verb- 
Phrase; as, 

1. George can sing. 4.. The boat might ham been saved. 

2. Susan may have gone. 5. The train will soon arrive. 

3. The boat has sunk. 6. The children should be studying. 

Obs. — The verb-phrase is regarded for the present as a single 
part of speech. 



42 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

86. Mention the verbs and the verb-phrases in the 
following : 

1. The whole earth smiles. 

2. The wind sighs so mournfully. 

3. Gold will be received in payment. 

4. Words will pay no debts. 

5. The pitcher has been broken. 

6. Stars dazzle; planets shine steadily. 

87. Write sentences, using the following verbs as 
predicates: 

dance dawns graze float 

climb nourishes blooms sow 

88. Use the following nouns as subjects of verbs: 

kings lions sailors blood 

robins tigers storms Clouds 



The Classification of Verbs. 
89. The Copulative Verb. 

1. Jefferson was a statesman. 3. She looks pale. 

2. Snow is white. 4. He seems honest. 

Name the subjects of the above sentences. Name the 
verbs. What noun follows the verb was to describe the 
subject and complete the predicate of sentence one? 
What adjectives are used with the verbs is, looks, and 
seems, to describe the subjects of each? 

Words used like statesman, white, pale, and honest , 
attribute some quality or class to the subject, and are 
called Attributes. 

Verbs like was, is, looks, and seems, used to join an 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 43 

attribute to the subject, are called Copulative Verbs. 
The word copulative means joining. 

A Copulative Verb is one that requires the addition 
of an attribute, describing the subject, to form a predi- 
cate; as, 



am 


is 


are 


was 


were 


been 


seems 


appears 


looks 


became 



These are a few of the verbs most commonly used as 
copulatives. Use them in sentences, orally expressed, or 
written. 

. The verb used to assert the mere existence of the 
subject is be, usually called the copula; as, 

I am he is we are they were 

90. The word used with the copulative verb to 
form the predicate may be, 

1. A noun or pronoun; as, 

1. George is an artist. 3. It was he or she. 

2. Clara is a singer. 4. Horses are quadrupeds. 

2. An adjective ; as, 

1. Sugar is sweet. 3. Caro was studious. 

2. Charles appears happy. 4. The man seems prosperous. 

Obs. — Nouns used with the copulative verb to form the simple 
predicate are often called Predicate Nouns. Adjectives thus used 
are called Predicate Adjectives. They are both attributive words, 
and are called attributes in the predicate. 

EXERCISES. 

91. Write sentences, using as attributes the following 
nouns: 

statesman tailor student 

merchants painter blacksmith 



44 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

92. Write sentences, using as attributes the following 
adjectives: 

busy soft hard 

happy hungry easy 

calm merry long 

93. Use appropriate adjectives as attributes in the 
following blanks: 

Apples are Grapes are 

The night was Sugar is 

The day is The flowers are 

The men were Some days must be 

Obs. — When the verb be is used to assert mere existence, it is not 
copulative, but finite, and becomes the simple predicate of the 
sentence. When thus used, it is generally preceded by there or 
followed by limiting words denoting place; as, 

1. He is in Boston. 5. Behind the clouds is the sun. 

2. Were you there? 6. Our times are in His hands. 

3. I am on the way. 7. Wast thou there? 

4. They will be at home. 8. There was a storm. 



94. Transitive Verbs. 

1. John struck James. 

2. The girls heard the concert. 

3. Grant defended his country. 

Name the subject-nouns in the above sentences. 
Name the verbs. Can one strike without striking 
something, or defend without defending something? 
Whom did John strike? What did the girls hear? 
What did Grant defend? Would the verbs struck, 
heard, and defended express definite meaning without 
the use of the nouns James, concert, and country*? 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 45 

Verbs like struck, heard, and defended are called 
Transitive Verbs, because the action expressed by many 
of them passes over from the actor to the person or 
thing acted upon. Transitive means passing over. 

A Transitive Verb is one that requires the addition 
of an object to express its definite meaning; as, 

1. Dora loves her mother. 2. Love needs no words. 

A word thus used with a transitive verb is called its 
Object. It is so called because it names the object 
affected by the action usually expressed by the verb. 

Transitive verbs may have one or more objects; as, 

1. Esther studies music. 

2. Ned enjoys music and dancing. 

3. O, see the birches, oaks, pines, and firs! 

95. Intransitive Verbs. 

1. Morning dawns. 3. Showers descend. 

2. Water ripples. 4. Flowers bloom. 

Name the subject and the predicate of each of the 
above sentences. What is asserted of morning? What 
of tvater 9 Does morning dawn anything ? Do the verbs 
daivns, ripples, descend, and bloom require an object to 
form a definite predicate ? 

Verbs like dawns, ripples, descend, and bloom, requir- 
ing no object to make complete sense, are called Intransi- 
tive Verbs. 

An Intransitive Verb is one that does not require the 
addition of an object to express its definite meaning; as, 

1. The snow falls lightly. 

2. Lilies bloom on the water. 

3. Leaves fade under autumn skies. 

4. Precious stones are fadeless. 



46 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Some verbs may be used both transitively and intran- 
sitively, thus: 



Transitively — 


1. 


He 


runs a factory. 


Intransitively — 


2. 


The 


thief runs away. 


Transitively — 


3. 


The 


boy flies his kite. 


Intransitively — 


4. 


The bird flies in the air 


Transitively — 


5. 


The 


girls sung a song. 


Intransitively — 


6. 


The 


girls sung well. 


EXERCISES. 



96. In the following sentences, mention the subject- 
nouns or pronouns and classify the verbs used; name 
also the object of each transitive verb : 

1. The crocus blooms early. 

2. The south wind blows softly. 

3. Horses eat grass, hay, and corn. 

4. He struck the ball fiercely. 

97. Write sentences, using transitively the following 
verbs: 

study see found 

hear taste broke 

smell speaks love 

98. Write sentences, using intransitively the following 
verbs : 



turn creep speaks 

play shine went 

climb fall sleep 

99. Write sentences, using the following verbs (1) 
transitively, (2) intransitively: 



sings 


stops 


writes 


ran 


rings 


swim 


study 


burns 


walks 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 47 

THE SERIES. 

100. A succession of three or more words in the 
same construction, either as subjects, predicates, or modi- 
fiers, is called a Series; as, 

1. Wheat, oats, rye, and barley grow in the fields. 

2. Our country is free, strong, and great. 

3. Children run, jump, sing, or dance. 

4. Birds fly merrily and swiftly and gracefully. 

Kule: The comma (,) is used to separate the parts 
or members of a series, unless they are all united by 
connectives, as in the fourth sentence. 

EXERCISE. 

101. Name the subject-nouns and pronouns in the 
following sentences. Classify the verbs, and name the 
object of each transitive verb: 

1. The crocus, the violet, and the buttercup bloom early. 

2. Empires rise, flourish, and decay. 

3. They played ball, croquet, and dominoes. 

4. The path up the mountain is narrow, rough, and thorny. 

5. Our army fought long, fiercely, and well. 

6. Washington was a hero, brave, faithful, and courageous. 

7. Christmas, New Year's, and Thanksgiving are holidays. 



COMPOSITION. 

102. Read the following description of the way in 
which Rip Van Winkle was received at his home after 
he had been away for twenty years. Observe the verbs 
and the adjectives used in a series: 

THE RETURN OF RIP VAN WINKLE. 

The appearance of Rip, with his long, grizzled beard, and his 
old, rusty gun, soon attracted the attention of all the people of 



48 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

the village. They crowded round him, eyeing him with great 
curiosity. One short but busy little fellow pulled him by the 
arm, rising on tiptoe to ask him questions. A knowing, self- 
important, old gentleman, in a sharp cocked hat, made his way 
through the crowd, to demand of Rip his reasons for carrying 
the gun. 

Poor, puzzled old Rip, who believed that he had been away 
only one night, was dismayed by the excitement over him. He 
began to doubt whether he was himself or another man, and the 
bystanders now looked at each other, nodded, winked, and tapped 
their fingers against their foreheads. There was a whisper about 
securing the gun, and keeping the old fellow from doing mischief. 

At this critical moment, however, a fresh, comely woman 
passed through the crowd to get a peep at the gray-bearded man. 
She had a rosy, chubby child in her arms, whom she spoke to as 
"Rip." The old man, hearing the name, at once told her his 
story. She proved to be his daughter, and took him home to live 
with her. Her house was a snug, well-furnished one, and she had 
a stout, cheery farmer for a husband, whom Rip recollected for 
one of the urchins who used to climb upon his back. 

— Adapted from Washington Irving. 

103. Reproduce the account given above, using your 
own words as far as possible. Then write a similar 
composition, describing the return home of some one 
whom you know, or of a journey you have taken. 



THE ADVERB. 

104. Study carefully the verbs in the following 
sentences: 

1. Mother returns soon. 

2. Mother meets us here to-morrow. 

3. The hours pass slowly. 
4- Roses are very fragrant. 
5. Night comes too soon. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 49 

When does mother return? J What word limits returns 
by telling ivlien she returns? 

Where will mother meet us? What word limits meets 
by telling where she will meet us? 

How do the hours pass? What word limits pass by 
telling how the hours pass? 

What parts of speech are returns, meets, and pass? 

Words like soon, here, and slowly, used to limit verbs, 
are called Adverb's. Adverb means to a verb — used ivith 
a verb. 

Hoiv fragrant are the roses? What word limits the 
adjective fragrant by telling hoiv fragrant the roses 
are? 

Hoiu soon does night come? What word limits the 
adverb soon by telling how soon night comes? 

Words like very and too, used to limit adjectives or 
adverbs, are also called Adverbs. 

An Adverb is a word used to limit the meaning of a 
verb, a verbal, an adjective, or an adverb. 

105. Classes of Adverbs. 

Adverbs are classified as, 

1. Adverbs of Time — those answering the questions, 
When? How long? How often? Thus: 

1. Father will come to thee soon. 

2. He always speaks the truth. 

3. Hereafter I shall be prompt. 
4- Come early, not late. 

5. Love is love forevermore. 

2. Adverbs of Place — those answering the questions, 
Where? Whither? Whence? Thus: 



50 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

1. Bring the book here. 

2. Turn backward, O Time, in your flight! 

3. Do you see the birds yonder? 
4- We shall soon go hence. 

5. They all went ashore. 

S. Adverts of Manner — (1) those answering the 
questions, How? or, How much? (2) those limiting by 
making affirmation or denial, thus: 

1. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 

2. Yes, I will favor you. 

3. No, we shall not come. 

4. The lessons are too long. 

5. He is much better to-day. 

6. Certainly I will go. 

7. Doubtless he will object. 

Obs. — Adverbs, when used to ask questions in reference to 
manner, time, or place, are called Interrogative. 

EXERCISES. 

106. In each of the following sentences, name (1) 
the subject-noun or pronoun; (2) the verb; (3) the 
adjectives; and (4) classify the adverbs and tell what 
each limits: 

1. We have been agreeably disappointed. 

2. Some people are continually changing their minds. 

3. Upward we gaze. 

4. He labors hard and rests very little. 

5. He seldom comes ashore. 

6. How oppressively warm it is! 

7. The ox walks very slowly. 

8. "Swiftly, swiftly, flew the ship, 

Yet she sailed softly, too. 
Sweetly, sweetly, blew the breeze, 
On me alone it blew." 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



51 



107. Construct sentences illustrating the use of the 
following words: 

Adverbs of Time. 



yesterday 


often 


early 


frequently 


to-day 


always 


again 


sometimes 


to-morrow 


lately 


rarely 


forever 




Adverbs of Place. 




here 


away 


far 


hither 


there 


aside 


forward 


thither 


yonder 


back 


outward 


everywhere 




Adverbs 


of Manner. 




well 


truly 


partly 


somewhat 


softly 


fast 


undoubtedly 


verily 


badly 


faithfully 


gently 


certainly 


so 


very 


easily 


gracefully 


scarcely 


equally 


entirely 


carefully 


sufficiently 


greatly 


perhaps 


indeed 



108. Adverbs Formed From Adjectives. 

1. The waves are calm; they move calmly. 

2. Lambs are gentle; treat them gently. 

3. The man is angry; he speaks angrily. 

What is added to the adjectives calm, gentle, and 
angry to make the adverbs calmly, gently, and angrily? 

Many adverbs are thus formed from adjectives by 
suffixing (or adding) ly. 



109. Adjectives should not be used instead of 
adverbs. 

1. They move calmly (not calm). 

2. Treat them gently (not gentle). 

3. He speaks angrily (not angry). 



52 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

110. Choose the correct words in the following: 

1. (Really, real) honest men can be found. 

2. I feel quite (well, good). 

3. (Almost, most) everyone is attending the meeting. 

4. How (rapid, rapidly) the moments fly! 

5. Some pupils learn (easy, easily). 

6. They acted very (nobly, noble). 

7. (Brightly, bright) beams our Father's mercy. 

111. Change the following adjectives to adverbs 
and use the adverbs in sentences: 

easy sudden visible frantic smooth 

noble joyous bright happy 



COMPOSITION. 
112. Read thoughtfully the following composition: 

THE PETS OF GREAT MEN. 

One of the strongest characteristics of many of our most cele- 
brated men has been their love for animals. The following are 
only a few of the many anecdotes which serve to illustrate this: 

The poet Whittier once wrote to a friend: "I have met with a 
real loss. Poor Charlie is dead. He has gone where the good parrots 
go. He had been ailing and silent for some time, and he finally died. 
Do not laugh at me when I say that I am sorry enough to cry if 
it would do any good. He was an old friend. We buried him 
decently. If there is a parrot's paradise, he ought to go there." 

Another pet of this tender-hearted poet was a bantam rooster 
that was tame enough to perch on his shoulder and liked to be 
buttoned up in his coat. 

The great Sir Walter Scott was very fond of dogs, and at his 
feet, in Westminster Abbey, lies buried Maida, one of his chief 
favorites. When his dog Camp died he sent word to a friend 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 53 

that he could not go with him to a dinner party that day "on 
account of the death of a dear old friend." 

Prince Bismarck is another lover of dogs, and it is said that 
he always takes with him on his travels, and feeds from his own 
hand, his dog Sultan. 

Daniel Webster was a lover of all animals and put up a stone 
at Marshfield in memory of his horse Greatheart. Moreover, on 
the day of his death, he had the oxen driven up to his study 
window for a last look into their honest, kindly faces. 

Thoreau had a little tame mouse with which he played games 
of hide and seek; and Dickens wrote touchingly of the death of 
his pet raven. 

This love for animals inspired the English poet Cowper, who 
wrote — 

I would not enter on my list of friends 

(Though graced with polished manners and fine sense, 

Yet wanting sensibility) the man 

Who needlessly sets foot upon a worm. 

Study this composition and its form. Mention the 
adverbs and tell what each one limits ; then write a 
similar composition of four paragraphs. 

113. Following the outline below, write what you 
know of adverbs. 

Outline. 

1. Definition — two examples. 

2. Classification — define each class and give examples. 

3. How formed from adjectives — example. 



INFLECTION. 

114. Observe the different forms of the italicized 
words in the following sentences: 

1. He is a man much esteemed among men. 

2. He is a fine lad; she is a fine lass. 



54 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

3. This apple is sweet; that is sweeter. 

4. He can dance; I saw him. 

5. I see a lark, and I saw it yesterday. 

6. Clara loves and is loved. 

What noun, in the above sentences, changes its form 
to denote more than one? What noun changes its form 
to denote a different sex? What adjective changes its 
form to compare one apple with another? What pro- 
noun in sentence four changes its form to show its use 
as the object of a transitive verb? What verb in sen- 
tence five changes its form to show past time? What 
verb in sentence six changes its form to show that 
Clara not only acts but is acted upon? 

Changes, like the use of men for man; lass for lad; 
sweeter for siveet; him for lie; saio for see; and is loved 
for loves, are called Inflections. 

Inflection in grammar is a change in the form of a 
word to vary its meaning or use. 

That form of a word in which inflections (changes) 
are made is called the root-iuord, thus: 

man, the root for men. lad, the root for lass, 

see, the root for sate. love, the root for is loved. 

Words are inflected to express Person, Number, Gen- 
der, Case, Voice, Mode, and Tense. 

Inflection of Nouns and Pronouns. 

115. Person Forms. 

1. My friend, I gladly greet you. 

2. The autumn days are come. 

What pronoun in the above sentences represents the 
person that is sjjeaJcing? What noun represents a per- 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 55 

son addressed, or spoken to? What noun is so used as 
to represent things spoken off 

Words like I, used to represent the speaker, are said 
to be in the First Person. 

1. I will study. 3. I, John, saw these things. 

2. We shall learn. 4. We boys are ready. 

Words like friend, used to represent persons or things 
spoken to, are said to be in the Second Person. 

1. Will you sing? 3. Have you no song, robin? 

2. Canst thou dance? 4. Hast thou no friends? 

Obs. — The second person singular (thou hast, thou art, etc.) is 
used to-day only in poetry. 

Words like days, used to represent persons or things 
spoken of, are said to be in the Third Person. 

1. February is the birth month of Washington and Lincoln. 

2. February needs no other decoration. 

3. Monticello was the home of Thomas Jefferson. 

Person of nouns is shown not by their form but by 
their use. 

Person of personal pronouns is shown by infection; as, 



First Person. 


Second Person. 


Third Person. 


I 


thou 


he, she, or it 


we 


you 


they 



The pronouns of the First Person are I and toe; 
myself and ourselves. 

The pronouns of the Second Person are thou and 
ye or you; thyself, yourself, yourselves. 

The pronouns of the Third Person are he, she, it, 
and they; himself, herself, itself, and themselves. 



m PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

116. Name the nouns and pronouns in the following- 
sentences and tell the person of each: 

Come to me, O ye children! 

For I hear you at your play, 
And the questions that perplexed me 

Have vanished quite away. 

Ah! what would the world be to us 

If the children were no more? 
We should dread the desert behind us 

Worse than the dark before. 

— Longfellow. 

117. Write four sentences, using I, iue, thou, and 
they as subjects. Write sentences, using him, her, us, 
and them as objects of transitive verbs. 

118. Number Forms. 



tree 


box 


lady 


fife 


trees 


boxes 


ladies 


fifes 


folio 


cargo 


leaf 


staff 


folios 


cargoes 


leaves 


staffs 



Notice the above list of nouns. Name those that 
denote one. Name those that denote more than one. 
Does the form of each tell whether it denotes one or 
more than one ? 

The form of a noun or pronoun by which it dis- 
tinguishes one object from more than one is called 
Number. 

Nouns that denote one are said to be in the Singular 
Number; as, man, woman. 

Nouns that denote more than one are said to be in 
the Plural Number; as, men, women; boys, girls. 

Nouns are inflected to show number. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 57 

119. Rules for the Formation of the Plurals. 



ingular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


tree 


trees 


box 


boxes 


folio 


folios 


match 


matches 


rose 


roses 


bush 


bushes 


town 


towns 


glass 


glasses 



What is added to the nouns tree, folio, rose, and town 
to form the plural? 

1. The plural of nouns is usually formed by adding 
s to the singular. 

With what letters do the nouns box and glass end? 
What is added to each of these nouns to form the 
plural ? 

2. The plural of nouns ending in s, x, z, ch (as in 
match), sh, and g (soft) is formed by adding es to the 
singular. 

EXERCISE. 

120. Write sentences, using the plurals of each of 
the following nouns: 



lesson 


dish 


canoe 


topaz 


fence 


anvil 


bush 


zone 


loss 


trench 


watch 


genius 



121. Observe the following nouns and notice how 
the plurals are formed: 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

joy joys candy candies 

key keys lily lilies 

tray trays story stories 

What is added to the words joy, key, and tray to form 
the plural ? What change is made in the nouns candy, 
lily, and story? 



58 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



3. The plural of nouns ending in j, preceded by a 



vowel (a, e, i, o, or u), is formed by adding % 

ending in j, preceded by a consonant, change y 

add es. 

EXERCISE. 



; nouns 
to i and 



122. Write sentences, using the plurals of the 
following nouns: 

city daisy victory story 

lady ray sky baby 

toy journey money essay 

123. Study carefully the nouns given below and 
observe the formation of the plurals: 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


beef 


beeves 


thief 


thieves 


calf 


calves 


wharf 


wharves 


elf 


elves 


sheaf 


sheaves 


leaf 


leaves 


wolf 


wolves 


loaf 


loaves 


wife 


wives 


half 


halves 


life 


lives 


self 


selves 


knife 


knives 


shelf 


shelves 







If.. The above twelve nouns, ending in 1, form their 

plural by changing f to v and adding es; the three ending 

in fe form their plural by changing f to v and adding 

s; all other nouns thus ending form their plural by 

adding s only. 

EXERCISE. 

124. Write sentences, using the plurals of the 
following nouns: 



life 
fife 
roof 



grief 
thief 
gulf 



cliff 
bluff 



Obs. — All nouns ending in ff add s only, except staff (meaning 
stick), which changes ff to v and adds es. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



m 



125. Study the following nouns and notice how the 
plurals are formed: 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


folio 


folios 


potato 


potatoes 


bamboo 


bamboos 


calico 


calicoes 


trio 


trios 


cargo 


cargoes 


duo 


duos 


buffalo 


buffaloes 


cameo 


cameos 


veto 


vetoes 


studio 


studios 


negro 


negroes 



5. Nouns ending in o, preceded by a vowel, form their 
plural by adding s. 

6. Most nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, 
form their plural by adding es. 

EXERCISE. 

126. Write sentences using the plurals of the fol- 
lowing nouns: 



octavo 


veto 


folio 


piano 


buffalo 


calico 


cargo 


tomato 


halo 



127. Notice the plurals of the following nouns: 



lingular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plurc 


man 


men 


louse 


lice 


woman 


women 


goose 


geese 


child 


children 


ox 


oxen 


foot 


feet 


mouse 


mice 


tooth 


teeth 







The above nouns form their plurals very irregularly, 
not by a change of termination, but, with two exceptions, 
by a change ivithin the word. 



60 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

128. Pluralize the nouns in the following and then 
make the necessary changes: 

The goose is a web-footed fowl. 
The potato is a tuber. 
The ostrich is the largest bird. 
If.. The child we met was a dwarf. 

5. I put my money in the bank. 

6. The man on the wharf was playing a fife. 
The sword is in its sheath. 
The motto was chosen without proviso. 

129. Name the adjectives and verbs in the following 
and tell the number of each noun: 

What the leaves are to the forest, 

With light and air for food, 
Ere their sweet and tender juices 

Have been hardened into wood, — 

That to the world are children; 

Through them it feels the glow 
Of a brighter and sunnier climate 

Than reaches the trunks below. 

— Longfellow. 



COMPOSITION. 
130. Eead carefully this account of: 

HOW LINCOLN STUDIED GRAMMAR 

The following characteristic incident in the life of Abraham 
Lincoln shows that in grammar, as in everything else, the maxim, 
"Where there's a will there's a way," holds good. 

It is said that when Lincoln was a young man of twenty-one, 
clerking in a store in New Salem, Illinois, he found to his joy 
that he could speak in public and argue a case as well as anyone 
who passed through the village. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR 61 

But he felt, to his keen chagrin, that while his thoughts were 
clear and convincing, his language was imperfect and faulty; 
hence, when he made up his mind to become a public speaker, he 
at once sought the schoolmaster for advice. "If you are going 
before the public, you ought to study grammar" was the wise 
man's sensible answer. 

The only grammar in the neighborhood was six miles away, 
but before night Lincoln had walked the distance to and fro and 
was deep in the mysteries of the borrowed copy of "Kirkham's 
Grammar." Every spare moment for weeks was spent with that 
book. The whole neighborhood became interested in his progress. 
Even the village cooper kept up a fire at night by which 
Lincoln might sit and study grammar. 

It was not long before the book was mastered and Lincoln 
was so delighted that he said to his fellow clerk: "Well, if that's 
what they call a science, I think I'll go at another." 

From such humble beginnings came the training which enabled 
Lincoln to express his thoughts with a clearness, force, and 
simplicity that are seldom equaled. 

— Adapted from "Tar-bell's Life of Lincoln." 

Notice the divisions or paragraphs in this composition. 
Give the number of each noun. 

Lay the book aside and reproduce the incident, using 
your own language as far as possible. 

131. Eeview person and number; then, following the 
outline below, write what you know of each, in the form 
of a composition. 

Outline. 

1. Person — define it — how many? Define each and give 
examples. 

2. Number — define it — how many? Define each and give 
examples. 

3. How the plurals are formed: 

Most nouns — nouns adding es — examples. 
Nouns ending in / or fe and o — examples. 
Nouns ending in y — examples. 



62 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

132. Number Forms of Personal Pronouns. 

1. He will play, and they will dance. 

2. You are a good child. You are good children. 

Which pronouns in the foregoing sentences denote 
person? Which represent more than one? Which are 
in the singular number? Which in the plural number? 

EXERCISE. 

133. Copy the following pronouns and underline 
once those in the plural number, and tivice those that 
are sometimes singular and sometimes plural : 

I thee thou he her she they 

we your you ye his its their 

us my them it him thy yours 

You may be singular or plural as seen in sentence 
two. When, however, it is used as the subject of a 
sentence, a plural verb is required; as, 

1. You were present (not was). 

2. You are employed (not is). 

134. Rules for the Use of the Personal Pro- 
nouns. 

1. The number of the pronoun must be the same as 
that of its antecedent, thus: 

1. The ladies took their umbrellas with them. 

2. George brought Ms book and laid it on the table. 

3. The birds sing their best songs. 

Jf,. The rose sheds its sweetest fragrance. 

2. Singular antecedents connected by and usually 
require a plural pronoun, thus: 

1. George and Guy have learned their lessons. 

2. Sun and shower bring us their blessings. 

3. John, James, and Joseph took their guns with 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR 63 

3. Singular antecedents connected by or or nor 
require a singular pronoun, thus: 

1. Either George or Guy has learned Ms lesson. 

2. Neither George nor Guy has learned Ms lesson. 

J/-. Singular pronouns are required after each, every, 
either, neither, not one, anyone, etc., thus: 

1. Each of the men took Ms hoe. 

2. Every leader has Ms faults. 

3. Either of the sisters will do her share. 

4. Not one of us does as well as he can. 

EXERCISES. 

135. Fill each of these blanks with personal pro- 
nouns of correct number: 

1. Which one of the reapers finished work first? 

2. Mary and Maud will favor us with company. 

3. John or James will favor us with company. 

4- Notice is hereby given to all persons to pay taxes. 

5. Every child should be allowed toys. 

6. It is difficult for men and women to see own faults. 

7. Not a rabbit nor a hare made appearance. 

136. Write sentences using the following pronouns 
with antecedents of the same number: 

their his her them 

its it they he 

137. Gender Forms. 

1. Father has a coachman. 

2. Mother keeps a maid-servant. 

3. Place the glasses on the sideboard. 

4. Children love their parents and their teachers. 






64 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Of what sex are the objects named by the nouns 
in the first sentence? Of what sex are those named in 
the second sentence? Do the nouns in the third sen- 
tence denote sex, or the absence of sex? May those in 
the fourth sentence denote either sex? 

Nouns like father and coachman, used to represent 
males, are of the Masculine Gender. 

Nouns like mother and maid- servant, used to repre- 
sent females, are of the Feminine Gender. 

Nouns like glasses and sideboard, naming objects 
without sex, are of the Neuter Gender. 

Nouns like children, parents, and teachers, naming 
either males or females, are of the Common Gender. 

The sex of the objects named by common-gender 
nouns may often be determined by the sense of the 
passage. 

EXERCISE. 

138. Name the nouns in the following sentences, 
and give the gender of each: 

1. Great talkers are broken pitchers; they hold nothing. 

2. Gertrude has neither father nor mother. 

3. The captain tells his adventures to the children. 

4. Laziness travels slowly; poverty overtakes it. 

5. Ichabod was a suitable figure for such a steed. 

6. We get back or mete as we measure — 

We can not do wrong and feel right, 
Nor can we give pain and gain pleasure, 
For justice avenges each slight. 

The air for the wing of the sparrow, 

The bush for the robin and wren, 
But always the path that is narrow 

And straight, for the children of men. 

— Alice Gary. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

139. Methods of Distinguishing Gender. 

Nouns distinguish sex in three ways: 
1. By different endings — inflection. 



65 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


master 


mistress 


executor 


executrix 


heir 


heiress 


widower 


widow 


count 


countess 


sultan 


sultana 


czar 


czarina 


hero 


heroine 


Julius 


Julia 


Paul 


Pauline 


2. By prefi 


xes or suffixes. 






Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


?ram-servant 


maid-seTY&Tit 


landlord 


landlady 


he-goaX 


she-goaX 


grandfather 


grandmother 


merman 


mermaid 


male-child 


female-child 


3. By different words. 






Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


man 


woman 


brother 


sister 


nephew 


niece 


lord 


lady 


lad 


lass 


king 


queen 




EXERCISES. 





140. Copy the following, and write after each a 
name of opposite gender: 



ictor Jew 


hunter 


Drince lioness 


hostess 


igress negro 


testatrix 



141. Write the feminine of each of the following 
nouns by the use of different words: 



son 


male 


husband 


uncle 


bachelor 


boy 


father 


gander 


monk 



66 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

142. Write three sentences having masculine subjects 
and feminine objects; as, 

George assists his mother. 

143. "Write three sentences having feminine subjects 
and neuter objects; as, 

Sarah loves music. 

144. Write three sentences with neuter nouns as 
subjects; as, 

The tables are turned. 

145. Gender Forms of Pronouns. 

1. She met him at church. 3. I am glad to see you. 

2. We met her in Cambridge. 4. Thou art the man. 

/, thou, he, she, and it are pronouns. 

Which personal pronouns show by their form that 
they represent females? Which show that they represent 
an object neither male nor female? Then name the 
gender of each of the above pronouns. 

The gender of a pronoun must be the same as that 
of its antecedent. Thus, he, his, and him represent 
masculine nouns; she, hers, and her represent feminine 
nouns; it and its, neuter nouns; they, theirs, them, etc., 
common-gender nouns: 

1. George has a book and he will lend it. 

2. May took Tier friend with her. 

3. Nelson raises his hat when he meets a lady. 

4. The teachers took their lunches with them. 

When the gender of the antecedent is indefinite, the 
masculine pronoun is used; as, 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 67 

1. Each child took his top and hoop. 

2. Everyone should study himself. 

3. Has anyone raised his hand? 

It and its may refer to a child or to a lower animal 
when sex is not considered; as, 

1. Poor child, how it suffers! 

2. Pretty bird, hear it sing! 

EXERCISE. 

146. Fill the following blanks with pronouns of the 
correct number and gender: 

1. Stephen died a martyr to faith. 

2. The kitten ate breakfast. 

3. Mary said had finished work. 

4. George and Guy took skates to the pond. 

5. Carlos learned lesson before went to school. 

6. Some boy or girl has lost or knife. 

7. The boys have lost boat. 

8. Everyone should do best. 

9. Each one of us must paddle own canoe. 

10. The bird carries straws in mouth to build nest. 

11. "The friendly cow all red and white 

love with all heart; 

gives me cream with all might 

To eat with apple tart." 



COMPOSITION. 
147. Study very carefully the following description: 

HOW ROBINSON CRUSOE BUILT A BOAT. 

I felled a large cedar tree. I question whether Solomon ever had 
such a one for the building of his Temple at Jerusalem. At the base 
it was six feet in diameter, and five feet in diameter twenty feet 



68 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

above the base, where it lessened for a while, before it parted into 
branches. 

With great labor I felled this tree. I was twenty days hacking 
at it at the bottom. I was fourteen more cutting off its branches 
and wide-spreading head, which I did with axe and hatchet. After 
this it required a month's work to shape it to proportions like a boat, 
that it might sail upright. 

To work out the inside so as to form a complete hull, I worked 
three months longer. Thus by dint of hard labor, without fire, I 
made a very handsome canoe with chisel and mallet. It was big 
enough to cany six and twenty persons, and consequently big 
enough to carry me and my cargo. The boat was really much big- 
ger than any I ever saw that was made of one tree, and I was ex- 
tremely delighted with it. Now, there remained nothing to do but 
to get it into the water. 

The ground where the canoe lay was about twenty feet higher 
than the water, so I reasoned that by digging into the surf ace of the 
earth so as to form an incline plane, it would be easy for me to get 
the boat down the incline if I could only start it. But after I had 
done all this work I could not even stir the heavy canoe. 

Then I determined to dig a canal and bring the water to the 
canoe, since I could not take the canoe to the water. 

Well, I began this work, but thought best to make a calculation 
upon the time it would take me to accomplish it. To my dismay, I 
found that I must work ten or twelve years before the canal would 
be completed. 

This grieved me heartily; and then I saw, though too late, the 
folly of beginning a work before we count the cost, and before we 
judge rightly of our own ability to push it to completion. 

— Daniel Defoe. 



Notice the contents of each paragraph in the above. 
Tell the gender of each noun and pronoun. 

Lay the story aside and tell it in writing as you recall 
it. Compare your story with Crusoe's. Did you omit 
anything? Have you placed the thoughts in the right 
order ? 

Eewrite your story, if you can improve it in any way. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 69 

148. Eeview gender; then, following the outline 
below, write briefly what you know of gender. 

Outline. 

1. Definition — how many? Define each and give examples. 

2. Define the three ways by which nouns distinguish sex, and 
give examples. 

149. Case Forms. 

1. We can see them. Can they see us? 

2. I found him. He could not find me. 

3. He put his knife in my desk. 

4. Webster was a lawyer. 

What nouns or pronouns in the above are subjects of 
sentences? Which ones are objects of verbs? Do ive 
and us represent the same persons? To what does we 
change its form to represent the object of a verb? 
Which pronoun denotes possession? Do he and his 
represent the same person? To what does he change 
its form to denote possession? What noun completes 
the meaning of the word in? 

Words like ive, they, he, and Webster, used as sub- 
jects of verbs, are said to be in the Nominative Case; 
those like them, us, him, and me, used as objects 
of verbs, or of prepositions, are said to be in the 
Objective Case; those like his and my, used to denote 
possession, are said to be in the Possessive Case. 

What noun in sentence four is used with the copula- 
tive verb was, to form the predicate? What are such 
nouns called? 

Nouns or pronouns like lawyer, used as attributes in 
the predicate, are also in the nominative case; as, 

1. It is I. 3. Tennyson was a poet. 

2. We were they. 4. They were singers. 



70 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

You have found that nouns and pronouns are inflected 
to show number, gender, and case; and pronouns, to 
show person also. 

150. Declension. 

Inflection of nouns and pronouns is called Declension. 
Nouns are declined to show possession only; the 
objective case requires the same form as the nominative. 
The possessive case of nouns is formed: 

1. By adding the apostrophe and s ('s) to singular 
nouns and to plural nouns not ending in sj as, 

Guy's hat children's shoes 

men's money man's money 

boy's coat women's work 

2. By adding the apostrophe (') only to plural 
nouns ending in sj as, 

girls' hats ladies' dresses 

boys' games merchants' convention 



Nouns representing persons and lower animals are 
declined to denote possession. With other nouns, pos- 
session is usually expressed by means of equivalents, 
thus: 

The top of the tree — not the tree's top. 

The height of the mountain — not the mountain's height. 

The width of the street — not the street's width. 

Obs. — Exceptions are nouns indicating time, such as, the day's 
work, the week's time, the month's pay, the year's course, and a few 
others. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



71 



Declension op Nouns. 



Nominative. 


Possessive. 


Objective 


Singular — 


man 


man's 


man 


Plural — 


men 


men's 


men 


Singular — 


girl 


girl's 


girl 


Plural — 


girls 


girls' 


girls 


Singular — 


% 


fly's 


fly 


Plural — 


flys 


flys' 


flys 




Declension op Pronouns. 




Nominative. 


Possessive. 


Objective. 


Singular — 


I 


my or mine 


me 


Plural — 


we 


our or ours 


us 


Singular — 


thou 


thy or thine 


thee 


Plural — 


you 


your or yours 


you 


Singular — 


he 


his 


him 


Plural — 


they 


their or theirs 


them 


Singular — 


she 


her or hers 


her 


Plural — 


they 


their or theirs 


them 


Singular — 


it 


its 


it 


Plural — 


they 


their or theirs 
EXEKCISES. 


them 



151. Rewrite the following, using an equivalent 
phrase for each possessive noun: 

The ocean's waves. 
A mother's care. 



The children's story. 
A sister's love. 



Paul Revere' s ride. 
The bird's wing. 
Franklin's kite. 
The Lord's mercy. 



Washington's home. 
The ladies' apartment. 
Arnold's treason. 
A child's manner. 



152. Name the subject and verb of each of the 
following sentences; also tell the person, number, gender, 
and case of each noun and pronoun: 

1. He and I are ready. 

2. We found him and her. 



72 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



I saw that it was she. 

John is a good citizen. 

He can go as well as she. 

Can you hear them sing? 

His dog worried our cat. 

Julia can not find her pen. 

Who will find it for her? 

Come unto me and I will give you rest. 

You acted consistently with your profession. 

They climb up into my turret 

O'er the arms and back of my chair; 

If I try to escape, they surround me; 
They seem to be everywhere. 

— Longfellow. 



153. Write the correct form in the following: 

1. Mary and (I, me) were present. 

2. You are smaller than (he, him). 

S. Can you sing as well as (they, them)? 

4. It was (me, I). 

5. I know that it was (she, her). 

6. I was visiting Lizzie and (she, her). 

7. They visited (he, him) not (I, me). 

8. Here are some pearls for (she, her) and (I, me). 

9. Was it not Guy and (she, her) who called? 

10. Do you think it was (they, them)? 

11. Will you escort Susie and (I, me)? 



COMPOSITION. 



154. Read thoughtfully the following description of 
the turkey's behavior: 

THE MARTIAL TURKEY. 

Perhaps it is not generally known that we get the idea of some 
of our best military maneuvers from the turkey. The sending of 
a skirmish line in advance of an army is one of them. The drum- 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 73 

majoi % of our holiday militia companies is copied exactly from the 
turkey gobbler: -he has the same splendid appearance, the same 
proud step, the same warlike aspect. 

The gobbler does not lead his forces in the field, but goes 
behind them, like the colonel of a regiment, so that he can see 
every part of the line and direct its movements. This resemblance 
is one of the most singular things in natural history. I like to 
watch the gobbler maneuvering his forces in a grasshopper field. 
He throws out his company of two dozen turkeys in a crescent- 
shaped skirmish line, the number disposed at equal distances, while 
he walks majestically in the rear. 

They advance rapidly, picking right and left, killing the foe 
and disposing of the dead bodies with the same peck. Nobody has 
yet discovered how many grasshoppers a turkey will hold; but he is 
very much like a boy at a Thanksgiving dinner — he keeps on eating 
as long as the supplies last. 

— From "Being a Boy," by Charles Dudley Warner. 

Make a list of the adjectives and adverbs in the above 
description. Tell the case of each noun and pronoun. 

Rewrite this composition, using other words of similar 
meaning for all the italicized words. 

What animal is the most interesting to yon? Write 
an account of it, telling all yon have observed or learned 
about your favorite animal. 

155. Review case; then, following the outline below, 
write in the form of a composition what you know of it. 
Make a paragraph of what you write on each point in 
the subject. 

Outline. 

1. Definition — how many? Define each and give examples. 

2. Write rules for forming the possessive case and give 
examples of each. 



74 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES AND 
ADVERBS. 

156. Comparison of Adjectives. 

1. Guy's peach is sweet. 

2. George's peach is sweeter than Giry's. 

3. Ned's is the sweetest peach of the three. 

What adjective in sentence one expresses quality of 
the peach? In sentence two, what is added to that 
adjective to express a comparison between Guy's peach 
and George's? In sentence three, what is added to com- 
pare Ned's with George's and Guy's? 

Which of these different forms expresses merely the 
quality of sweetness? Which a higher degree of qual- 
ity? Which the highest degree of quality? 

This change of form in adjectives, to express degree 
of quality or quantity, is called Comparison. 

Adjectives are inflected to show comparison. 

157. Degrees of Comparison. 

There are three degrees of comparison: The Posi- 
tive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. 

The Positive degree denotes the mere existence of the 
quality; as, 

sweet grapes bright days 

The Comparative degree denotes a higher or loiuer 
degree; as, 

sweeter grapes brighter days 

The Superlative degree denotes the highest or lowest 
degree; as, 

sweetest grapes brightest days 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 75 

Use the comparative degree when one object is com- 
pared with but one other object; the superlative degree 
when one object is compared with two or more objects. 

158. Comparison toy adding- r or er. 

Most adjectives of one syllable (and some of more than 
one) are compared regularly by adding r or er to the 
positive, to form the comparative, and st or est to the 
positive, to form the superlative; as, 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative 


kind 


kinder 


kindest 


cold 


colder 


coldest 


wise 


wiser 


wisest 



159. Comparison by More and Most. 

Some adjectives, particularly those of more than one 
syllable, are compared by the use of more or less for the 
comparative, and most or least for the superlative; as, 

fragrant more fragrant most fragrant 

curious less curious least curious 

patient more patient most patient 

160. Irregular Comparison. 

Commit to memory the comparison of the following 
adjectives, which are compared irregularly, and use six 
of them in sentences: 



good 


better 


best 


bad) 
ill f 


worse 


worst 


little 


less 


least 


fore 


former 


( forem 



(first 



76 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



near 


nearer 


S nearest 
( next 


much ) 
many ) 
late 


more 


most 


j later 
( latter 


( latest 
( last 


old 


older 


j oldest 
( eldest 



EXERCISES. 
161. Compare the following adjectives: 



low 


small 


light 


poor 


merry 


fast 


hot 


tall 


faii- 


silly 


large 


true 


rich 


weak 


able 



162. Compare the following and use in sentences 
the comparatives of four of them, and the superlatives 

of six: 

cheerful precise polite 

sincere honest pleasant 

fearless mellow tender 

able cunning grateful 

marshy lovely narrow 

163. Classify the adjectives in the following, then 
tell what each limits, and give its degree: 

The apples on our table are sweet. 

Many poisonous plants grow wild. 
3. This is the worst road of all. 
4.. George is taller than I. 

5. The sun shines on the placid lake. 

6. My old friend treads his native hills again. 
The cold wind drives the fallen leaves. 
Which is the larger, Illinois or Iowa? 

9. Lead is a heavy metal. 

10. Good friends are most valuable. 

11. Fine feathers make a fine bird. 
Fair words want giving hands. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 77 

164. Adjectives that are Inflected to show 
Number. 

This and that are the only adjectives which are 
inflected to show number. This and these refer to what 
is near; that and those to what is more distant, thus: 

1. This is a good apple; these are poor. 

2. Those winter days were dreary. 

3. These early flowers are sweet. 
4.. That Monday was a fair day. 

Use this and that with singular nouns; these and 
those with plural nouns, thus: 

1. This (not these) sort of fruit suits me. 

2. We do not wish that (not these) kind of shoes. 

165. Comparison of Adverbs. 

A few adverbs, like adjectives, are inflected for 
comparison; as, 



late 


later 


latest 


early 


earlier 


earliest 


harshly 


more harshly 


most harshly 


brightly 


less brightly 


least brightly 



Use three of the above comparatives in sentences, 
and three of the superlatives. Tell what each limits. 

166. Commit to memory the comparison of the 
following adverbs compared irregularly, and use each 
of them in a sentence of your own construction: 



much 


more 


most 


little 


less 


least 


well 


better 


best 


ill 


worse 


worst 



78 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

167. Words used as Adjectives or Adverbs. 

Many words are used sometimes as adjectives, some- 
times as adverbs, thus: 

1. He is the best boy. 3. I ate breakfast early. 

2. He behaves best. 4. I ate an early breakfast. 

EXERCISES. 

168. Use the proper form in each sentence below: 

1. We prefer (this, these) kind of hats. 

2. Which is (more, most) useful, gold or iron? 

3. Of all oceans the Pacific is the (larger, largest). 

4. Of all gems the diamond is the (more, most) costly. 

5. Who is (youngest, younger), Caro, Ruth, or Esther? 

169. Which of the italicized words in the follow- 
ing sentences are adjectives? Which adverbs? What 
does each limit? 

1. You should learn fast. 6. The road was long. 

2. You are fast learners. 7. We were long on the way. 

3. I am very well. 8. Are you an early riser? 

4. Does he study better? 9. Then you can start early. 

5. He is a better student. 10. The day was dreary. 



COMPOSITION. 

170. Study what is given below about the para- 
graph, observing especially the forms of comparison that 
are used: 

THE PARAGRAPH. 

A paragraph is one part of a composition, and is made up of 
a number of sentences, which all tell something about a single 
subject. Open any book, and you will notice that a break is made 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 79 

in the printed page whenever a new paragraph begins; the first 
line of the paragraph starts a little farther away from the margin 
than the other lines. In your own writing, always mark the 
beginning of a new part in this way, putting down the first 
word of the paragraph about a quarter of an inch nearer to the 
right side of the page. In old times people did not break their 
writing into paragraphs, but we think our way better than theirs, 
because the divisions make the reading much simpler and easier. 

In making your paragraphs, there are other things to consider 
in addition to putting into one paragraph the sentences that tell 
about the same topic. If you write these sentences down just as 
they happen to come into your head, without trying at all to 
arrange them, it is likely that your work will not be clear to the 
people who read it. You must plan to make one sentence lead to 
another, in such a way as to make the whole paragraph an orderly 
account of what you are writing about. Moreover, you must 
decide which things that you have to tell are the most impor- 
tant, and then be careful not to tuck these important things away 
among unimportant ones. 

Of course, writing your compositions in this manner requires a 
great deal of thinking and planning before you begin. The 
wisest way, the most certain way to secure a clear, interesting 
composition, is to decide before you write at all just how many 
paragraphs you mean to have, and what you are going to put into 
each one. 

Into how many parts is this composition divided? 
Why do we arrange our writing in paragraphs? What 
do yon learn from the third paragraph? 

Write a short composition, planning your paragraphs, 
and using in it the different forms of comparison. Per- 
haps the following subjects may be suggestive ones for 
you to compare: 

Summer Fun, in Town and in the Country. 
Pony and Bicycle. 
Reading and Playing. 
Dogs and Monkeys. 



80 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

171. Review comparison; then, following the out- 
line below, write from memory what you know of it. 
Be careful to paragraph each division of the subject. 

Outline. 

1. Definition — how many degrees? Define each and give 
examples. 

2. Comparatives — how are they formed? Give examples of 
each method. 

3. Superlatives — how are they formed? Give examples of 
each method. 



INFLECTION OF THE VERB — 
CONJUGATION. 

172. Mode Forms. 

1. Charles walks. 4. Charles must walk. 

2. Does Charles walk? 5. If Charles walks I will walk. 

3. Charles may walk. 6. Charles, walk here. 

Each verb of the above sentences asserts the same 
thing. Which verb asserts a thing as actual, or as a 
fact? Which inquires if a thing actually exists? Which 
asserts a thing, not as actual, but as possible? Which 
asserts a thing as conditional (that may or may not occur) ? 
Which as a command? 

That form of a verb which shows the manner in which 
it asserts action, being, or state is called Mode. 

The word mode means manner. 

173. The Indicative Mode. 

Verbs like walk and does walk, used to assert a thing 
as actual, are in the Indicative Mode, thus: 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 81 

1. John studies music. 3. We have seen the comet. 

2. Bid George read a poem? 4- They have gone home. 

Write sentences using the indicative mode of the 
verbs sing, play, work, and do. 

174. The Potential Mode. 

Verbs like may walk, should ivalk, must walk, nsed to 
assert a thing as possible or permissible, as necessary or 
obligatory, are in the Potential Mode, thus: 

1. Julia can learn music. 

2. James may study history. 

3. Susie should study art. 

4. Joseph might learn a trade. 

5. You must work or be worthless. 

The potential mode is formed by the use of the fol- 
lowing mode- words: May, can, must, might, could, 
would, or should. 

Write sentences using the potential mode of the 
verbs see, come, go, and trust. 

175. The Subjunctive Mode. 

Verbs like walk, in sentence five (Sec. 172), used 
to express that which may or may not occur, a supposi- 
tion contrary to fact, or a wish, are in the Subjunctive 
Mode, thus: 

1. Unless he reform, he can not be trusted. 

2. If I were you, I would attend school. 

3. I would that father were here. 

This mode is usually introduced by if, though, unless, 
or other similar words. When, however, verbs thus 



82 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

introduced are used to express what is a fact or assumed 
as a fact, they are in the Indicative Mode, thus: 

1. If it snows and blows, why do you go? 

2. Though he was old, he was not infirm. 

3. If he wishes to visit me, he must come soon. 

Obs.— The only subjunctive form commonly used to-day in 
English is were. 

176. The Imperative Mode. 

Verbs like walk, in sentence six (Sec. 172), used to 
assert a thing as a command or an entreaty, are in the 
Imperative Mode, thus: 

1. Study your lessons. 3. Come to the desk. 

me your books. 4. Do listen to the music. 



Write sentences using the verbs give, hear, go, and 
think in the imperative mode. 

177. Tense Forms. 

1. I write letters to-day. 

2. I have written the letters to-day. 

3. I wrote those letters yesterday. 

4. I had written the letters yesterday. 

5. I will write the letters to-morrow. 

6. I will have written the letters to-morrow. 

All the verbs in the above sentences assert the same 
action and of the same subject, /. Do they each express 
time? Which expresses an action as in the present? 
Which expresses an action as begun in the past 
and completed in the present? Which expresses an 
action as past? Which expresses an action as begun and 
completed (perfected) in the past? Which expresses an 
action as yet to come? Which expresses an action as 
begun and completed (perfected) in the future? 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 83 

Do these verbs change form to express differences of 
time ? 

That form or variation of a verb by which it expresses 
the time of the action or being is called Tense. The 
word tense means time. 

How many different forms of the verb do you notice 
in these six sentences? 

There are, then, six tenses: 

present past future 

present-perfect past-perfect future-perfect 



178. The Present Tense expresses action or being in 
present time; as, 

1. Gambling is a crime. 3. Our times may improve. 

2. The times are prosperous. 4. Lay down your pens. 



179. The Present- Perfect Tense expresses action or 
being completed at the present time; as, 

1. We have learned our lessons. 

2. He has been successful. 

3. They may have heard the news. 

4. Have your friends arrived? 

The present-perfect tense is formed by the use of the 
tense-words have or has before the past participle of 
the principal verb. 

Write sentences using the present-perfect tense of the 
verbs write, sing, stand, and he. 



Obs. — That variation of the verb used in the perfect tenses 
after have, has, or had is called the Past Participle. 



84 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

180. The Past Tense expresses action or being as 
wholly past; as, 

1. We came on Tuesday. 

2. Did you come by rail? 

3. The days were dark and dreary. 

If.. I stood on the bridge at midnight. 

181. The Past-Perfect Tense expresses action or 
being as completed in the past; as, 

1. My weary guest had lain down. 

2. Had the sun risen? 

3. The wounded soldiers had fought bravely. 
If. We had stood in line for hours. 

The past-perfect tense is formed by the use of the 
tense-word had before the past participle. 

Write sentences using the past-perfect tense of the 
verbs play, go, see, and be. 

182. The Future Tense expresses action or being yet 
to come; as, 

1. He will dine with us to-morrow. 

2. I shall learn grammar. 

3. Surely it will rain to-day. 

If. Shall we see you to-morrow? 

The future tense is formed by placing before the 
principal verb the tense-words shall for the first person 
and will for the second and third persons. 

183. The Future- Perfect Tense expresses action or 
being as completed in the future; as, 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 85 



1. Soon we shall have finished our book. 

2. In a few days he will have completed his college course. 

3. To-morrow she will have reached her tenth year. 

4. He soon will have finished his work. 

The future-perfect tense is formed by the use of the 
tense-words shall have or will have before the past 
participle. 

Write sentences using the future-perfect tense of the 
verbs learn, do, go, and read. 

For the participles, see pages 105-108. 

184. Tense Forms in all the Modes. 

The Indicative mode has all the six tenses. 

The Potential mode has four tenses — the Present, 
Present- Perfect, the Past, and Past-Perfect. 

The Imperative mode has only one tense — the Present. 

The Subjunctive mode has all the six tenses, but, in 
form, they are the same as those in the indicative mode, 
except in the following cases: 

1. In the present tense, he is used instead of am, is, 
and are; in the past tense, were is used instead of was. 

2. Have is used instead of has, and other verbs omit 
s or es in the third person singular, present tense. 

Obs. — The pupil should notice how rarely any special form 
for the subjunctive occurs in modern English. 

185. A study of the following table of mode and 
tense forms shows but few inflections for mode and tense, 
the only changes in the principal verb being in the 
past indicative and subjunctive, and in the perfect tense, 
indicative and potential: 



86 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE FORMS OF MODE 
AND TENSE. 



Indicative 
Mode. 



Potential 
Mode. 



have 
■perfect — has 
hast 



Past — 
Past-perfect — 

Future — 

Future-perfect ■ 

Present — 
Pr 



^Subjunctive 
Mode. 



Imperative 
Mode. 



Past — 



Past-perfect ■ 



Pn 



Past- 



love 
loved 

loved 
loved 

love 

have loved 

love 



1 

}>have loved written 

J 



had 
hadst 

shall 
will 

shall 
will 

may 

can 

must 

may 
can 

must 

might 
could 
would 
should 

might 
could 
would 
should 

if 

though }■ love 

unless J 

if | 

though }- loved 
unless J 

love 



>love 






write 
written 

wrote 
written 

write 

written 

write 



write 



vhave loved written 



write 



wrote 



* Obs. — If, though, unless, etc., are used also with 
tive mode. What difference in meaning is thus shown 



write 
the indica- 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 87 

COMPOSITION. 

186. Commit the following poem to memory: 

A FANCY. 

At evening when I go to bed 
I see the stars shine overhead; 
They are the little daisies white 
That dot the meadow of the Night. 

And often while I'm dreaming so, 
Across the sky the Moon will go; 
It is a lady, sweet and fair, 
Who comes to gather daisies there. 

For, when at morning I arise, 
There's not a star left in the skies; 
She's picked them all and dropped them down 
Into the meadows of the town. 
— From (i Little-Folk Lyrics," by Frank Dempster Sherman. 

A poem is a composition written in verse. 

A verse is a single line of poetry. 

A stanza is a division of a poem containing two or 
more verses. 

A rhyme is a correspondence of sound at the end of 
verses. 

How many stanzas in this poem? How many verses 
in each stanza? Mention the rhymes in each stanza. 

With what kind of a letter does each of the verses 
begin? 

Tell the mode and the tense of each verb. 

Copy Mr. Sherman's little poem. Notice carefully 
the capitals and marks of punctuation. 

Briefly write the story of the poem in the form of a 
prose composition. Place each thought in its proper 
order. You may call your story "Helen's Fancies." 



88 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

187. Eeview mode and tense; then, following the 
outline below, write what you know of them in the 
form of a composition. 

Outline. 

1. Definition of Mode — how many modes? Define each and 
give examples. 

2. Definition of Tense — how many tenses? Define each and 
give examples. 



188. Auxiliary Verbs. 

Verbs like have, has, did, may, can, and must, used 
to help form the various modes and tenses, are called 
Auxiliary Verbs (helping verbs). As auxiliaries they 
have the form only of the present and past tenses, 
except be, which is used as an auxiliary in all tenses. 

The auxiliaries are: 

Present — be do have shall will may can must 
Past — did had should would might could 

Be, have, do, and toill are also principal verbs, and 
may take other auxiliaries before them; as, 

1. You may have my skates. 

2. We shall be late. 

3. They could have done well. 
J^. He may will us his estate. 

The combination of the auxiliary and the principal 
verb is called a Verb -Phrase; as, 

1. He may go. 

2. You can learn. 
S. She must study. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 89 

189. Rules for the Proper Use of the Aux- 
iliaries. 

1. To express permission or possibility, use may: 

1. The teacher says I may (not can) go. 

2. May (not can) I go home? 

3. The stars may shine to-night. 

4. It may be true. 

5. The book may be lost. 

Construct three sentences using may correctly. 

2. To express ability or poiver, use can: 

1. I can write (not may). 

2. You can solve the problem. 

3. I think you can learn grammar. 

Construct three sentences using can correctly. 



3. Might and could,, the past tenses of may and 
can, follow the rules for may and can: 

1. The teacher said I might go home. 

2. Might he not go out? 

3. I could not walk. 

.4. Could he not stand? 

Construct three sentences using might correctly. 

4. To express necessity or obligation, use must: 

1. We must wait. 

2. Must we wait for the train? 

3. We must submit to the laws. 

Construct three sentences using must correctly. 



90 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

5. To express simple futurity, use shall in the first 
person; will in the second and third persons: 

1. I shall start to-morrow. 

2. You will start to-morrow. 

3. We shall move next week. 

4. Will they move next week? 

Construct three similar sentences. Explain your use 
of shall and will. 

6. To express purpose or determination and futurity, 
use will in the first person; to express compulsion with 
futurity, use shall in the second and third: 

1. I will pay the bill to-morrow. 

2. You shall pay the bill. 

3. My son shall pay his bills. 

4. We will pay those bills. 

Construct three similar sentences. Explain your use 
of shall and will. 

7. Should and would, the past tenses of shall and 
will, follow the rules for the uses of shall and will: 

1. We thought we should go. 

2. We determined we would go. 

3. I feared he would leave. 

4. He demanded that we should resign. 

Construct three similar sentences. Explain your use 
of should and would. 

8. Use do as an auxiliary to make the emphatic 
form of a verb; also in interrogative and negative 
sentences: 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 91 

1. I do enjoy your company. 4,. They do not study. 

2. He did work with might. 5. Did you hear the music? 

3. Does he study hard? 

Construct three similar sentences. Explain your use 
of do and did. 

9. Use be to make the progressive form of a verb: 

1. I am writing. 4- I have been writing. 

2. I was writing. 5. I had been writing. 

3. I shall be writing. 6. I shall have been writing. 

190. Regular and Irregular Verbs. 

1. I call to-day. 4. I win favors. 

2. I called yesterday. 5. I won a favor. 

3. I have called to-day. 6. I have won a favor. 

What is annexed to the verb call to form the past 
tense? What is annexed to form the past participle? 
Does the verb win form its past tense by adding ed to 
the present? 

A verb whose past tense and past participle are 
formed by adding d or ed to the present tense is called a 
Regular Vert. 

A verb that does not form its past tense by adding 
d or ed to the present tense is called an Irregular Verb. 

191. Principal Parts of the Verb. 

The principal parts of a verb are the Present Indic- 
ative, Past Indicative, and Past Participle, thus: 



Indicative. 


Past Indicative. 


Past Participle. 


live 


lived 


lived 


hold 


held 


held 


give 


gave 


given 


write 


wrote 


written 



92 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

192. Form the past tense and past participle of 
the following verbs: 



invite 


say 


give 


teach 


carry 


collect 


destroy 


see 


sit 


sing 


talk 


discover 


recite 


blow 


fall 


do 


raise 


rain 


watch 


win 


go 


rise 


sail 


copy 





193. Give the principal parts of the following verbs, 
and tell which are regular and which are irregular: 



take 


dawn 


grow 


drive 


reply 


reform 


break 


ride 


laugh 


begin 


freeze 


fly 


love 


lay 


eat 


look 


steal 


prosper 


lie 


learn 



COMPOSITION. 
194. Study carefully the following fable: 

THE COUNTRY MAID AND THE MILK PAIL. 

A country maid was walking slowly along with a pail of milk 
upon her head, and thinking thus: 

"The money for which I shall sell this milk will buy me three 
hundred eggs. These eggs, allowing for what may prove addled, 
will produce at least two hundred and fifty chickens. The 
chickens will be fit to carry to market about Christmas, when 
poultry brings a high price, so that by May-day I shall have 
money enough to buy a new gown. Let me see — green suits 
me; yes, it shall be green. In this dress I shall go to the fair, 
where all the young fellows will want me for a partner, but 
I shall refuse every one of them." By this time she was so full 
of her fancy that she tossed her head proudly, when over went 
the pail, which she had entirely forgotten, and all the milk 
was spilled on the ground. 

Moral: Don't count your chickens before they are hatched. 
— From " Fables and Folk Stories," by Horace E. Scudder. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 93 

Mention all the auxiliary verbs contained in this 
fable. Tell which verbs are regular, and which 
irregular. 

Reproduce the fable, adding such other thoughts as 
it may suggest to you. 

You may wish to write a similar story. Perhaps the 
following subjects may suggest one: 

A Messenger-Boy. A News-Boy. 

A Peanut- Vender. A Cash-Girl. 

195. Review the auxiliaries, and write what you 
know of them, in the form of a composition. Follow the 
outline below, and paragraph each natural division of 
the subject. 

Outline. 

1. Define the auxiliary verb, and give the list of those verbs. 

2. Give the use of may and can; and of might and could. 

3. Give the use of shall and loill; and of should and would. 



196. Voice Forms. 

1. John bought a book. 

2. The book was bought by John. 

3. The farmer gathers the harvest. 

4. The harvest is gathered by the farmer. 

Name the subject of each of the above sentences. 
Name the verb. Is it transitive or intransitive? Name 
the object of the verbs in sentences one and three. 
Which verbs represent their subjects as being acted 
upon? Do the verbs bought and gather change their 
form to represent the subject as acted upon? 

The form of a transitive verb which shows whether 
its subject acts or is being acted upon is called Voice. 



94 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

197. The Active and the Passive Voice. 

Transitive verbs used like bought and gathers, to 
represent the subject as acting, are said to be in the 
Active Voice; as, 

1. Bees make honey. 

2. Birds build nests. 

3. Men wrote the letters. 

Transitive verbs used like was bought and is gathered, 
to represent the subject as acted upon, are said to be 
in the Passive Voice; as, 

1. Honey is made by bees. 

2. Nests are built by birds. 

3. The letters were written by men. 

The passive voice of a verb in any tense is formed 
by adding its past participle to the verb be in that 
tense; as, 

1. I am taught. 

2. I have been taught. 

3. They will have been taught. 

4. We should be taught. 

EXERCISE. 

198. Write the following, changing the active voice 
to the passive and the passive to the active: 

1. We expect good news. 

2. The attorney examined our claims. 

3. Children welcome the springtime. 

4. The bird was shot by a cruel boy. 

5. The arch will be decorated by an artist. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 95 

6. I seized the opportunity. 

7. The lightning shattered the oak. 

8. The sled was bought by Ned. 

9. The steam engine was invented by Watt. 

10. Electricity moves the cars. 

11. One bad example spoils many good precepts. 

12. Have you heard the news? 

13. Were the stanzas written by you? 
lJf.. We saw a brilliant meteor. 

15. The sun's eclipse was seen by many. 



199. Person and Number Forms. 

1. I am ready. You are ready. He is ready. 

2. I study. You study. He studies. 

3. I have books. You and I have books. He has books. 

In which of the above sentences is the verb be used? 
Which form of this verb is used with a subject of the 
first person? Which with a subject of the second person? 
Which with a subject of the third? Notice the change 
in the form of the verb be. 

Which verbs in the above nine sentences are used 
with a singular subject ? Which with a plural subject ? 
Notice the changes in the forms of these verbs. 

You have seen that the verb be takes different forms 
— am, is, are, etc. — to agree with its subject in person 
and number; also that other verbs change form to agree 
with the person and number of their subject, in the 
third person singular only, when s or es is added to the 
verb, and have is changed to has. 

That form of a verb which shows its agreement in 
person with the subject is called Person. 

That form of a verb which shows its agreement in 
number with the subject is called Number. 



96 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Rule: A verb must agree with its subject in person 
and number. 

200. Agreement of Verb and Subject. 

Two or more singular subjects connected by and, 

when they convey a plural meaning, require a plural 

verb; when they convey a singular meaning, a singular 
verb; as, 

1. Julia and Jane learn easily. 

2. Charles and Carlos ham been successful. 

3. My friend and benefactor has come. 

Two or more singular subjects connected by or or 
nor, or modified by each, every, either, neither, many a, 
or no, require a singular verb; as, 

1. Mary or Martha was present. 

2. Neither John nor James was present. 

3. Every man, woman, and child is saved. 

4. Each man and woman has a friend. 

5. Many a man has been defrauded. 

Some nouns are singular in form but plural in mean- 
ing; some are plural in form but singular in meaning. 
In such cases the meaning determines the form of the 
verb required; as, 

1. The sheep are in the pasture. 

2. The deer is a graceful animal. 

3. The news is pleasant. 

4- A large class were selected. 

5. The class is large. 

6. A great number were chosen. 

7. The number wounded was one hundred. 

8. "The Idylls of the King" is a charming poem. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 97 

EXERCISES. 

201. Select from the following sentences the correct 
form of the verb and give reasons for its use: 

1. (Was or were) you present yesterday? 

2. Neither of the horses (is, are) here. 

3. John and James (is, are) going to the city. 

4. Every one of the boys (was, were) busy. 

5. Each of the pupils (loves, love) to get prizes. 

6. Not one of the sheep (was, were) out of the field. 
7.. Julia or Mary (is, are) going to the party. 

8. The jury (is, are) discharged. 

9. Every hill and valley (is, are) covered with grass. 

10. The jury (has, have) found the prisoner guilty. 

11. The jury (agree, agrees) in their verdict. 

12. Both you and your sister (was, were) present. 

13. Neither John nor James (has, have) books. 

14. Yonder (go, goes) my brother and sister. 

15. The perfume of the lilies (fills, fill) the house. 

16. (Have or has) Paul and Samuel been away? 

202. Eead the following ; change the person or 
number of each italicized word, and then make such 
other changes as may be necessary: 

1. Every man has his opportunity. 

2. He has a knife in his pocket. 

3. These balls are too hard. 

4. The blacksmith hammers hard on his anvil. 

5. He comes here often. 

6. Are you going to the concert? 

7. The man who is truthful is respected. 

8. Is he going to-morrow? 

9. Are there elks among the mountains? 

10. These are the best pears in the basket. 

11. He knows not what to-morrow will bring. 

12. The girls assist their mother. 

13. This is the best essay that has been written. 

14. They are industrious men. 



98 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

203. In the following sentences give the mode and 
tense of each verb or verb-phrase, and tell which are 
principal verbs and which auxiliary: 

1. The weather is cool. 

2. Your coat sets badly. 

3. We may have good times. 

4. We did enjoy his visit. 

5. Do you love music? 

6. He was reading. 

7. The moon has risen. 

8. Was Harry a good boy? 

9. I will not go. 

10. He shall not be hurt. 

11. We do attend school. 

12. I wish that he were here. 

13. Look before you leap. 
U. Must I write? 

15. Could he sing? 

16. He might help. 

17. I shall finish to-morrow. 

18. The bells are ringing. 

19. The sun will have set. 

20. We found that he had gone. 

21. Will you meet us? 

22. Shall we see you? 

23. You should have seen the meteor. 

24. Do the stars fall? 

25. Can we help you? 

26. Can you see steam? 

204. Eead these sentences thoughtfully, choosing 
the proper word or words: 

1. If my sister (was, were) here, she (should, would) enjoy this. 

2. If he (was, were) honest, he (would, should) pay me. 

3. I (would, should) veto the bill, (were, was) I governor. 
4- If the bill (passes, pass), the law can not be enforced. 
5. Though he (be, is) poor, he pays his debts. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 99 

6. Though I (am, be) wofully wronged, I (shall, will) do no 
wrong. 

7. If wishes (were, was) horses, beggars (might, could) ride. 

8. I wish the day (was, were) fair. 

9. (Was, were) the day fair, we (should, would) start. 
10. If he (is, be) sick, we (should, would) visit him. 

Obs. — Notice that in some sentences both forms would be 
correct. Explain the difference in meaning in such cases. 

205. Eead the following sentences, changing the 
verbs first to the past tense, then to the future: 

1. The stars shine. 

2. The larks sing. 

3. Dead leaves fall. 

4. The lusty billows roar. 

5. The buds burst. 

6. They go to church. 

7. Stars are shining. 

8. The vivid lightning flashes. 

9. I alone escape. 

10. We may go. 

11. I am busy all day. 

12. The rosy morn advances. 

206. Eead the following, changing the present to 
the present-perfect, the past to the past-perfect, the 
future to the future-perfect tenses: 

George comes early. 

Yirgil came early. 

Webster's orations are admired. 

Bunyan wrote "The Pilgrim's Progress." 

5. The pitcher was broken. 

6. The pupils recite well. 
General Grant won many battles. 
Homer will read the poem. 

9. He will visit you to-morrow. 
10. Grant was the leader. 



100 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

207. Kead the following, using the emphatic and 
negative forms: 

1. We laughed merrily. 

2. Henry writes well. 

3. They contend for right. 

4. I answered you. 

5. The deer runs. 

6. The soldiers fought bravely. 

7. The patient suffers intensely. 

8. Mary reads. 

9. The crowd cheered heartily. 
10. The affrighted shepherds fled. 



208. Eead the following, using the progressive form, 
and give the mode and tense of each verb-phrase: 



1. 


The stars disappear. 


2. 


The snow fell. 


3. 


He set the lamp on the stand. 


4- 


They will read. 


5. 


The rain falls. 


6. 


Heat radiates. 


7. 


The pen lies on the desk. 


8. 


They had studied. 


9. 


The tempest will rage. 


10. 


The leaves have fallen to the ground 


11. 


And the raven still sits, still sits. 



209. Eead the following sentences six times, using 
the verbs in all the tenses in the indicative mode: 

1. I am a student. 

2. This frock is worn. 

3. Is this lot ours? 
If. He is late. 

5. This slate is given to him. 

6. Guy enjoys his position. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 101 

7. Your opinions are also mine. 

8. Autumn brings us many fruits. 

9. Friends, I come not here to talk. 
10. My son, you do right. 



210. Eead the following sentences four times, using 
all the tenses of the potential mode: 

1. The night is dark. 6. She paints portraits. 

2. The days are fair. 7. We win prizes. 

3. He cuts glass. 8. They wear jewels. 

4- Children blow bubbles. 9. The boys are coasting. 
5. He learns history. 10. The girls are studying. 



211. Write fourteen sentences — six with verbs in 
the indicative mode, four with verbs in the potential 
mode, two with verbs in the subjunctive mode, and 
two with verbs in the imperative mode. 

212. Read the following, correcting the mistakes 
indicated in italics: 

1. Can I be excused? 

2. I shall do my best. 

3. He will not lay down-. 

4. I shall have went. 

5. We will be gone a month. 

6. His cane is broke. 

7. Let him set there. 

8. Our task is not yet began. 

9. Papa says I can go. 

10. He run very fast. 

11. We would be happy if you should visit us. 

12. Shall you help us to-morrow? 

13. Set with me on the sofa. Sit out a chair for him. 

14. You done what you should not have did. 

15. Will I bring you the papers to-morrow? 



102 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

213. The following furnishes a comprehensive 
SUMMARY OF INFLECTION. 



Nouns 
Are Inflected ■{ 
to Express 



" Number- 

Gender- 
Case — 



I 
Person- 



Pronouns 
Are Inflected ■{ 
to Express 



Number- 

Gender- 
Case — 



I 

Voice — 



Mode — 



Verbs 
Are Inflected \ 
to Express 



Adjectives f 
and Adverbs 



Person and 

Number — 

Comparison — 



Are Inflected 



to Express [ 



the form of a noun by which it 

distinguishes one from more 

than one. 
the form of a noun by which 

sex is indicated, 
the form of a noun which shows 

its relation to other words in 

the sentence. 

the form of a pronoun which 

shows its relation to the 

speaker, 
the form of a pronoun by which 

it distinguishes one from 

more than one. 
the form of a pronoun by which 

sex is indicated. 
the form of a pronoun which 

shows its relation to other 

words in the sentence. 

the form of a transitive verb 
which shows whether the 
subject acts or is acted upon. 

the form of a verb which shows 
the manner in which the 
action, being, or state is 
asserted. 

the form of a verb which defines 
the time of the action, being, 
or state asserted. 

the form of the verb which shows 
its agreement with the subject. 

the form by which adjectives 
express different degrees of 
quality or intensity. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 103 

COMPOSITION. 

214. Read carefully the following incident in the 
life of a school-teacher: 

HEROISM. 

A little country schoolhouse stood on a beautiful prairie some 
distance from a small village in South Dakota. One bleak wintry 
day the teacher noticed the shadows deepening. It was early in the 
afternoon. With a quick glance she read the cloud signal of an 
approaching storm. She decided to dismiss school at once, so that 
all might reach home in safety. 

Gathering the youngest children about her, she started for the 
village; but in a few minutes the dreaded blizzard was upon them. 
So cold and swift came the driving snow that the strongest men 
would fear to be overtaken by such a storm. 

Great drifts heaped before them, blocking their way home. The 
teacher gathered the little ones about her, wrapped them in her 
garments, and sheltered them with her body, thus giving such 
protection as she could. They could only wait and hope for help. 

Some hours later a rescuing party found them almost concealed 
by the drifts. The children, through the loving self-sacrifice of the 
teacher, were unharmed, but the heroic woman who had suffered 
to protect them was so badly frozen that she could never walk 
again. 

The State voted her an annuity for the rest of her life. Do you 
wonder that the people of that town honor such a brave, unselfish 
woman? Men and women everywhere are made better by such 
deeds of heroism. 

Copy the above description, using words of like mean- 
ing instead of all italicized words. 

Mention the nouns and the adjectives. Tell the voice 
of each verb in the composition. 

Without reference to the book, rewrite the story. 
Compare what you have written with the original. Which 
is the best word-picture of the scene? Did you put each 
point of the story in the right place? 



104 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Perhaps you would like to write a story of some deed 
you may admire. The following subjects may recall a 
familiar incident: 

How a Fireman Saved a Child. 
How One Boy Defended A.nother. 
Courage at a Wreck. 

215. Eeview voice; then write in the form of a 
composition what you know of it. Follow the outline 
below and be careful in paragraphing your composition. 

Outline. 

1. Definition — How many? Define each and give examples. 

2. How is the passive voice formed? 



VEKBALS. 

216. Name the words denoting action in the follow- 
ing sentences: 

1. Guy writes easily. 

2. The boy writing is Guy. 

3. Words written can not be recalled. 

4. To write is a pleasure. 

What verb in sentence one denotes action? What words 
in the other sentences are formed from the same verb? 
Do ivriting and written denote action? Do they assert 
that anyone writes, or do they assume (take for granted) 
that someone writes? Does to ivrite assert an action, or 
does it merely express it? 

Words like writing, written, and to zvrite, which 
express an action, being, or state, without asserting it, 
are called Verbals. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 105 

A Verbal is a word derived from a verb, and which 
expresses action without asserting it. 

Verbals have the meaning of the verbs from which 
they are derived, but are used as nouns or as modifiers. 
They may be formed from nearly every verb in the 
language, thus : 

Verbs. Verbals. 

love loving loved to love 

sing singing sung to sing 

speak speaking spoken to speak 

hope hoping hoped to hope 

217. Participles — Simple and Compound. 

Verbals ending in ing are called Present Participles, 
because they represent an act as present and in progress, 
thus: 

1. We saw her painting. 

2. The steamer now leaving sails to London. 

3. Deceiving a neighbor is base. 

Verbals ending in d, ed, en, or t, are called Past 
Participles, because they represent an act as past and 
completed, thus: 

1. The bird, frightened by the dogs, flew away. 

2. We saw the soldiers wounded in honorable battle. 

3. She had a basket filled with grapes. 

Participles consisting of a single word are called 
Simple Participles. 

Participles combined with being, having, or having 
been, are called Compound Participles, thus: 

1. The work being finished, we retired. 

2. Having done well, we sought preferment. 

3. The essay, having been written with care, was admired. 



106 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

218. Form the present and past participles of each 
of the following verbs: 



tell 


drink 


live 


play 


run 


feel 


eat 


strive 


help 


read 


rest 


talk 


sing 


learn 


go 


lie 


lay 


fly 


break 


ring 



219. Mention the verbs, and classify the partici- 
ples in the following: 

1. Time misspent is time lost. 

2. Words once spoken can not be recalled. 

3. Being trusted makes us honorable. 

4. They complained of having been treated badly. 

5. The soldier, severely wounded, can not live. 

6. Some joys, once departed, never return. 

7. "And he, neglected and oppressed, 

Wished to be with them and at rest." 

8. "Something accomplished, something done 

Has earned a night's repose." 

220. Modifiers and Attributes of Participles. 

The participle, because of its verbal signification, may 
take, 

1. An adverbial modifier: 

1. The brooks go babbling by. 

2. Lessons learned easily are soon forgotten. 

3. Having written fast, he is ready to post. 

4. Having been timely warned, we escaped danger. 

5. Riding rapidly, he reached the station in time. 

2. An objective modifier (object): 

1. Having finished his work, he went home. 

2. We saw the army fighting the enemy. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 107 

3. Having been sawing wood, he is weary. 

4. Having finished reading the book, she took a drive. 

5. Watering the flowers, the gardener broke a beautiful 

rosebush. 

S. An attribute (adjective or noun): 

1. Having been worthy, he was chosen. 

2. Being a foreigner, he was slighted. 

3. Having become a scholar, he was ready for life. 

4. Being blind, the gentleman was led by his child. 

5. Being pure, the lily was selected as the emblem. 

Obs. — The participle combined with its modifier or attribute, 
is called a Participial Phrase. The basis of the participial phrase, 
or its most important part, is the participle alone or the participle 
combined with its attribute. 

EXERCISES. 

221. In the foregoing sentences, mention the past 
and the compound participles; also the modifiers and 
attributes they take. 

222. Write three sentences containing a participle, 
(1) taking an attribute, (2) modified by an adverb, (3) 
by an object. 

223. Uses of the Participle. 

The participle or the participle with its attribute 
may be used as, 

1. The subject of a sentence: 

1. Riding on horseback is a healthful exercise. 

2. Being good is being happy. 

3. Reading good books is instructive. 

4. Writing carefully makes an exact man. 

5. Skating on ice is a fascinating sport. 

6. Claiming justice is every man's right. 



108 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

2. An attribute in the predicate: 

1. Rest is not quilting the busy career. 

2. Hope is not expecting without reason. 

3. Doing good, is being good. 

4. Seeing is believing. 

5. Heroism is daring to do right. 

S. The object of a transitive verb or of a preposi- 
tion: 

2. Boys enjoy playing. 

2. Girls love skating on ice. 

3. They delight in studying music. 

4. I spend many pleasant hours in reading books. 

5. The sportsman delights in hunting deer. 

Jf. The basis of a . phrase used either as a noun or an 
adjective: 

1. Saving time is lengthening life. 

2. Bitter words once spoken can not be recalled. 

3. Men enjoy gaining wealth. 

4. He is fond of reading poetry. 

5. A mere adjective: 



1. Hear the rumbling wheels! 

2. She has a cultivated voice. 

3. Do you hear the babbling brook? 

4. Notice the rippling water! 

5. Hear the jingling bells! 

EXERCISES. 

224. In the foregoing sentences, mention the par- 
ticiples and participial phrases. Give the use of each. 



PRIM AH T GRAMMAR. 109 

225. Write sentences, using a participle — (1) as 
the subject of a sentence, (2) as the attribute in the 
predicate, ( 3 ) as the object of a verb, ( 4 ) as the basis 
of an adjective phrase, and ( 5 ) as a mere adjective. 

226. Infinitives — Simple and Compound. 

Verbals commonly introduced by to are called Infin- 
itives. According to form, they may be classified as 
Simple and Compound. 

The Simple Infinitive consists of a verb preceded by 
to; as, 

1. To think is to reflect. 

2. Ned loves to read. 

3. I shall expect to see you. 

The Compound Infinitive consists of the word to 
followed by the participle combined with he, have, or 
have been; as, 

1. To have tried a hard problem is praiseworthy. 

2. He hoped to have been promoted. 

Infinitives have two tenses — the Present and Present- 
Perfect; as, 

to love to have loved 

To, the sign of the infinitive, is usually omitted after 
the verbs bid, dare, let, make, feel, see, hear, and* some 
others; as, 

1. I saw them start. 

2. We dare not speak. 

3. I feel the pulse beat. 

4. He bade us come. 

5. They let us play. 

6. She made the bird fly. 



HO PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

227. Form the present and present-perfect infinitive 
of each of the following verbs: 



slide 


choose 


draw 


think 


see 


sink 


fear 


work 


make 


drive 


smite 


act 


blow 


swear 


call 



228. Mention the infinitives in the following and 
the verbs from which they are formed: 

1. We resolve to study diligently. 

2. They expect to start to-morrow. 

3. We are commanded to love our enemies. 

4. Boys love to coast on the hillside. 

5. To sing is a delightful pastime. 

6. They have gone to visit friends. 

7. The man appears to have seen better days. 

8. Be swift to hear: be slow to speak. 

9. Teach me to feel another's woe, 

To hide the fault I see. 

229. Construct six sentences properly omitting the 
to of the infinitive. 



230. Modifiers and Attributes of Infinitives. 

The infinitive, because of its verbal signification may 
take, 

1. An adverbial modifier: 

1. To live nobly is a duty. 

2. I expect to study diligently. 

3. He wishes to see you soon. 

4. To advance quickly is difficult. 

5. To do justly is to do nobly. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. Ill 

2. An objective modifier (object): 

1. To love our enemies is a duty. 

2. They came to study geography. 

3. Can you hope to count the stars? 

4. To enter college is my wish. 

5. We desire to learn history. 

3. An assumed attribute (adjective or substantive): 

1. To be contented is often difficult. 

2. Our hope is to become scholars. 

3. To be successful requires skill. 

4. The man seems to have been prosperous. 

5. They appear to have been thrifty. 

Obs. — The infinitive, either with or without modifier or 
attribute, is called an Infinitive Phrase. The basis of the infini- 
tive phrase is the infinitive alone or the infinitive combined with 
its attribute. 

Substantive is a term applied to any word, phrase, or clause 
used as a noun. 

EXERCISES. 

231. In the foregoing sentences, mention the infini- 
tives; also the modifiers and attributes which they take. 

232. Write three sentences containing an infinitive 
— (1) taking an attribute, (2) modified by an adverb, 
(3) by an object. 

233. Uses of the Infinitive. 

The infinitive or the infinitive with its attribute may 
be used: 

1. As a noun, either as subject, object, or attribute, 
thus: 

1. To see the sun is pleasant. 

2. To be truthful should be our constant aim. 



112 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

3. My desire is to see you to-morrow. 

4. To retreat was difficult; to advance was impossible. 

5. We love to see the sun's eclipse. 

2. As an adjective: 

1. He has my permission to go. 

2. Have we a right to he freel 

3. There is time to work, and time to play. 

If. He has the power to concentrate his thoughts. 

5. Time to come is called future. 



As an adverb, (denoting purpose or manner): 

1. We work to earn money. 

2. I am not afraid to speak the truth. 

3. I am glad to be free. 

4. Men travel to learn. 

5. We eat to live. 



EXERCISES. 

234. In the foregoing sentences, mention the infin- 
itives, and the use of each. 

235. Write sentences containing infinitives used as 
nouns, (1) as subject, (2) as attribute, (3) as object of 
a verb. 

236. Write two sentences containing an infinitive 
used, (1) as an adjective, (2) as an adverb. 

CAUTIONS. 

1. Avoid placing a modifier between to and the root- 
word of the infinitive; as, 

1. People soon ceased to wonder greatly {not to greatly 

wonder). 

2. We should study always to please {not to always please). 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 113 

3. He desires soon to become president {not to soon be- 

come, etc.). 

4. To be always cheerful is a virtue {not to always be, etc. ). 

2. Never use the present-perfect infinitive unless it 
refers to a time prior to that expressed by the principal 
verb; as, 

1. I intended to go {not to have gone). 

2. We expected to sail {not to have sailed) sooner. 

3. I hoped to be {not to have been) ready to go. 

S. Be careful not to combine two infinitives by and 
when one depends upon the other; as, 

1. Come to see us (not and see us). 

2. I will try to come (not and come). 



COMPOSITION. 

237. Eead the following carefully. Perhaps you 
will care to read the author's " Sharp Eyes and Other 
Papers": 

THE HOUND. 

The hound is a most interesting dog. How solemn and long- 
visaged he is — how peaceful and well-disposed! He is the Quaker 
among dogs. All the viciousness and currishness seem to have 
been weeded out of him; he seldom quarrels, or fights, or plays, 
like other dogs. Two strange hounds, meeting for the first time, 
behave as civilly toward each other as two men. * * * 

The hound is a great puzzle to the farm dog; the latter, attracted 
by his baying, comes barking and snarling up through the fields 
bent on picking a quarrel. He intercepts the hound, snubs, and 
insults and annoys him in every way possible, but the hound heeds 
him not. If the dog attacks him he gets away as best he can, 
and goes on with the trail. The cur bristles and barks and struts 
about for awhile, then goes back to the house, evidently thinking 



114 PBIMAB Y QBAMMAR. 

the hound a lunatic, which he is for the time being — a monomaniac 
the slave and victim of one idea. I saw the master of a hound 
one day arrest him in full course to give one of the hunters time 
to get a certain runaway fox. The dog cried and struggled to free 
himself, and would listen neither to threats nor caresses. Knowing 
he must be hungry, I offered him a lunch, but he would not touch 
it. * * * He was under a spell ; he was bereft of all 
thought or desire but the one passion to pursue that trail. 

— From " Pepacton," by John Burroughs. 

Study Mr. Burroughs's description of the hound till 
you have the author's thoughts and their order well in 
mind. Notice all verbals. As what part of speech is 
each one used ? 

Write in a similar way of some animal with which you 
are familiar. If you prefer you may use one of the 
following subjects: 

The Pug Dog. The Canary. The Pony. 

The Bear. The Parrot. The White Rabbit. 

238. Review the verbals; then write what you know 
of them. Follow the outline below. 

Outline. 

1. Define and classify verbals, and give examples of each 

class. 

2. Mention the uses of the participles. 

3. Mention the uses of the infinitives. 



PREPOSITIONS — RELATION WORDS. 

239. In the following sentences observe the blanks 
and study carefully the words italicized: 

1. The pleasures — - home are numerous. 

2. They went Italy. 

3. We found a place of rest. 






PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



115 



4. The work was done in haste. 

5. Her cloak is trimmed with fur. 

6. The heat of the sun is intense. 

7. I gathered shells a&m# the beach. 

8. Scenes in Nature should be lessons to us. 



Do examples one and two make good sense? Is there 
any word to show that home is meant to limit pleasures, 
or that it relates to pleasures in any way? Is there any 
relation expressed between Italy and tuent? What words 
can be used in the blanks to show a relation between 
home and pleasures ? between Italy and went f 

What word, in sentence three, is used to show a relation 
between rest and place 9 What other words show relation 
in the above sentences? 

Words like of, in, with, along, and to, used to intro- 
duce a phrase and show the relation of its object (the 
noun or pronoun or verbal completing its meaning) are 
called Prepositions. 

A Preposition is the connective word of a phrase used 
to show the relation of its object to the ivord which the 
phrase limits. 

The object of a preposition usually follows it, and is 
said to be in the objective case. 



List of the Principal Prepositions. 



240. The following are the prepositions most fre- 
quently used: 



above 


before 


down 


of 


across 


behind 


for 


over 


after 


beneath 


from 


to 


against 


between 


in 


toward 


during 


beyond 


into 


up 


at 


below 


on 


with 



116 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

EXEKCISES. 

241. Fill these blanks with appropriate prepositions 
selected from the list, and tell the number, gender, and 
case of each object: 

1. The boy ran the meadows. 

2. The birds flew the fields. 

3. Our friends sailed the Hudson. 

4. We shall get home night. 

5. The books were bought me, but given him. 

6. He returned soon midnight. 

7. The story was told simplicity. 

242. Write sentences using each preposition in the 
foregoing list to introduce a phrase, and tell what each 
phrase limits. 

PHRASES. 

243. Notice the groups of words italicized in the 
following sentences: 

1. The letter written yesterday was mailed. 

2. Leaves have their time to fall. 

3. He speaks and writes with rapidity. 

Groups of words like written yesterday, to fall, and 
with rapidity are called Phrases. 

A Phrase is a group of words containing neither sub- 
ject nor predicate and used as a part of speech. 

Classification of Pheases. 
244. Phrases Classified According to Form. 

According to form, phrases are classified as Participial, 
Infinitive, and Prepositional. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 117 

245 Participial Phrases. 

1. Being polite is being kind to all. 

2. I enjoy being busy. 

3. Being weary, I fell asleep. 

Which phrase in the above sentences is used as a noun 
— the subject of a sentence? Which phrase is used as a 
noun — the object of a verb? Which is used as an 
adjective, to limit the pronoun i" ? What part of speech 
is the first word of each of these phrases? 

Groups of words like being polite, being busy, and 
being weary, introduced by a participle and used as a 
single part of speech, are Participial Phrases. 

A Participial Phrase is a phrase introduced by a 
participle. 

246 Infinitive Phrases. 

4. To learn is a pleasure. 

5. We have a desire to learn. 

6. We are eager to learn. 

Which phrase is used as a noun — the subject of a 
sentence? Which is used as an adjective to limit the 
noun desire ? Which as an adverb to limit the adjective 
eager ? 

Verbals like to learn, used as a single part of speech, 
are Infinitive Phrases. 

An Infinitive Phrase is a phrase introduced by to, 
followed by a verb. 

247 Prepositional Phrases. 

1. Fishes live in the water. 

2. The history of America is instructive. 

3. Is the house on the top of a hill f 

4. He speaks wisely for a child. 



118 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

5. She writes with a pencil. 

6. Stand by the fountain. 

7. We hurried through the forest. 

8. The letter was addressed to me. 

What group of words in sentence one is used as an 
adverb to limit the verb live? 

Groups of words like in the water, the first word of 
which is a preposition, are Prepositional Phrases. 

A Prepositional Phrase is a phrase introduced by a 
preposition. 

Tell what each of the phrases in the above sentences 
limits, and notice that the last word of each phrase is a 
noun or a pronoun. 

248. Phrases Classified According- to Use. 

Phrases, according to use, are further classified as, 
Substantive. Adjective, and Adverbial. 

249. Substantive Phrases. 

A Substantive Phrase is one that fills the office of a 
noun. It may be used, 

1. As the subject of a sentence: 

1. To lom is natural. 

2. Being busy should be a pleasure. 

3. To sing songs is a pleasant diversion. 

4. To learn requires hard study. 

5. To please you is our desire. 

2. As an attribute in the predicate: 

1. Our desire is to improve. 

2. To rob is to plunder. 

3. He seems to move. 






PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 119 

4. To hesitate is to lose opportunities. 

5. His hope is to succeed. 

S. As the object of a transitive verb: 

1. She dislikes to study. 

2. Boys like to hunt rabbits. 

3. The girls learn to sing. 

4. Do you like to read? 

5. I will try to please you. 

EXERCISES. 

250. Classify the substantive phrases in the fore- 
going sentences and tell the nse of each. 

251. Construct sentences, one of each kind, illus- 
trated by the foregoing examples. Classify and tell the 
use of each phrase. 

252. Adjective Phrases. 

An Adjective Phrase is one that fills the office of 
an adjective. It may be used, 

1. As a modifier of a noun or pronoun: 

1. The study of plants is pleasant. 

2. A desire to please is commendable. 

3. Potatoes bitten by the frost soon decay. 

4. Columbus is the capital of Ohio. 

5. Wealth obtained dishonestly soon disappears. 

6. The Temple of Solomon was destroyed. 

2. As an attribute in the predicate: 

1. The child is in need (needy). 

2. She appears to be industrious (industrious). 

3. The gates are of pearl. 

4. He was without friends. 

5. Truth lies deeply buried. 



120 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

253. Mention the adjective phrases in the fore- 
going sentences, and tell^ how each one is used. 

254. Construct sentences, one of each kind, illus- 
trated by the foregoing examples. Tell the use of each 
phrase. 

255. Adverbial Phrases. 

An Adverbial Phrase is one that fills the office of an 
adverb. It may be used, 

1. To limit a verb: 

1. The birds sing in the summer. 

2. I came to hear you sing. 

3. The hills are covered with snow. 

4- The wagons rumble along the street. 

5. I cannot go without you. 

6. The earth turns on its axis. 

7. His trusty sword lay by his side. 

2. To limit an adjective: 

1. The mountains are rich in minerals. 

2. They are ready to go. 

3. The ground is white with snow. 

4. He is able to pay his debts. 

5. She is free from care. 

3. To limit an adverb: 

1. We live happily in California. 

2. They are too young to work. 

3. He provided sufficiently for our needs. 

4. He is too small to enlist. 

5. She sings well for a child. 

6. He is old enough to walk. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 121 

EXERCISES. 

256. Mention the adverbial phrases in the fore- 
going sentences, and tell what each one limits. 

257. Construct sentences, one of each kind, illus- 
trated in the foregoing examples. Tell the use of each 
phrase. 



COMPOSITION. 

258. Study carefully the following beautiful descrip- 
tion. Notice all the phrases in it and what each one 
limits. Then reproduce it in language of your own as 
far as possible: 

A SNOWSTORM. 

There is snow in the cold gray sky of the morning, and, through 
the partly frosted window panes, I love to watch the beginning of 
the storm. A few feathery flakes are scattered widely through the 
air, and hover downward with uncertain flight, now almost alighting 
upon the earth, now whirled aloft again. These are not the big 
flakes, heavy with moisture, which melt as they touch the ground. 
It is to be, in good earnest, a wintry storm. By nightfall, or at least 
before the sun sheds another glimmering smile upon us, the street 
and our little garden will be heaped with mountain snowdrifts. 
As yet, indeed, there is barely a rime like hoarfrost on the brown 
surface of the street, but gradually great changes will be wrought. 
These little snow particles, which the storm spirit flings by handfuls 
through the air, will bury the great earth under their accumulated 
mass. 

— Nathaniel Hawthobne. 

Having read thoughtfully the above extract, try to 
write a similar description of "An April Rain" or (( A 
Thunder-Storm in Summer." 



122 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

259. Review phrases; then write in composition 
form what you know of them. Follow the outline be- 
low. Carefully paragraph your composition. 

Outline. 

1. General definition — give examples. 

2. Classification according to form — define each class and give 
examples. 

3. Classification according to use — define each class and give 
examples. 



CLAUSES. 

260. Read the following sentences and determine 
the use of the word groups that are italicized: 

1. Men who are wise will be honored. 

2. The farm that I bought is fertile. 

3. We think that he is truthful. 

4. Snow will fall when winter comes. 

What group of words in sentence one limits the noun 
men? W T hat group in sentence two limits farm ? Since 
these groups limit nouns, they are used as what part of 
speech? What group in sentence three is used like a 
noun, as the object of think? What group in sentence 
four is used as an adverb, by telling when snow will 
fall? 

Groups of words like 

who are wise that I bought 

that he is truthful when winter comes 

containing a subject and a predicate, and used as a 
part of speech, are called Clauses. 

A Clause is a group of words having a subject and 
predicate. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 123 

Classification of Clauses. 

261. Clauses Classified According to Rank. 

According to their rank clauses are divided into two 
classes — Principal and Subordinate. 

A Principal Clause is one which, when used alone, 
would express a complete thought; as, 

1. He who runs may read. 

2. She stoops that she may conquer. 

A Subordinate Clause is one which is used as a 
noun, an adjective, or an adverb; as, 

1. He wlw runs may read. 

2. She stoops that she may conquer. 

^Q2i, Clauses Classified According to Use. 

According to their use (or office), clauses may be 
classified as Substantive, Adjective, and Adverbial. 

263. Substantive Clauses. 

A Substantive Clause is one used as a noun. It may be, 

1. The subject of a sentence: 

1. That a cold wave is coming is the report. 

2. Why he left is a mystery. 

3. What he said is true. 

4. Who wrote the letters is uncertain. 

5. What the child needs is exercise. 



124 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

2. The attribute in the predicate: 

1. The report is that a cold wave is coming. 

2. The mystery is why he left. 

3. My hope was that you would succeed. 

4. Life is what we make it. 

5. The question is where shall we go. 

3. The object of a transitive verb: 

1. We know that the earth is round. 

2. We believe that " God will remember the world." 

3. Tell us how you came. 

If.. I know not where you have been. 

5. Astronomers say that stars are suns. 

6. They know whom they will meet. 

EXERCISES. 

264. Mention the substantive clauses in the fore- 
going sentences. Tell which are used as subjects, which 
as attributes in the predicate, and which as objects of 
verbs. 

265. Construct sentences — two using clauses as 
subjects, two as attributes, and two as objects. 

266. Adjective Clauses. 

An Adjective Clause is one used as an adjective. It 
may limit a noun or a pronoun either in the subject 
or in the predicate: 

1. Men who are whole need no physician. 

2. She is a child who never saw a flower. 

3. The air that we breathe should be pure. 

4- He may teach many things which I wish to know. 
5. He who governs himself is a hero. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 125 

EXERCISES. 

267. Mention the adjective clauses in the above, 
and tell what each one limits. 

268. Construct two sentences, each containing an 
adjective clause. 

269. Adverbial Clauses. 

An Adverbial Clause is one used as an adverb. It 
may limit, 

1. A verb: 

1. Will you wait until I cornel 

2. I learned this poem when I was a child. 

3. While he slept the enemy came. 

4. Visit me when you can. 

5. You will find your pen where you left it. 

2. An adjective: 

1. He is better than he teas. 

2. We are older than they are. 

3. The sun is brighter than the moon is. 

4. Is honey sweeter than sugar (is)? 

5. Summer days are longer than are winter days. 

3. An adverb: 

1. He works harder than I can work. 

2. She learns faster than you do (learn). 

3. Can you see farther than I can see? 

4. He studies less than I study. 

5. The birds flew higher than I thought. 

EXERCISES. 

270. Mention the adverbial clauses in the forego- 
ing sentences, and tell what each one limits. 



126 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

271. Construct sentences — two containing an adver- 
bial clause limiting a verb, two limiting an adjective, 
and two an adverb. 



The Relative Pronoun. 

272. In the following sentences study the italicized 
words and learn their uses: 

1. Men who think well usually do well. 

2. I have the bird which you lost. 

3. Nature never betrays the heart that loves her. 

Which • of the above clauses limits men f Which 
limits birds? Which limits heart? 

What word in the first clause represents (stands for) 
the noun men ? What word in the second clause repre- 
sents bird ? What word represents heart ? 

What word introduces the first clause and connects 
it with men ? What word introduces the second clause 
and connects it with bird? What introduces and con- 
nects the third clause with heart? 

The words who, which, and that, used to represent a 
noun and to connect with it a limiting clause, are 
called Relative Pronouns. 

A Relative Pronoun is a tuord used both to represent 
a noun or pronoun and to connect with it a limiting 
clause. 

The noun or pronoun which a relative pronoun 
represents is called its Antecedent. 

273. Relative Pronouns Classed as Simple and 
Compound. 

The relative pronouns are: 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 127 

1. Simple — who (ivhose or whom), which, that, and 
what. Occasionally as may be used as a relative. 

2. Compound — whoever, whichever, ivhatever, whoso- 
ever, whichsoever, whatsoever. 

Who refers to persons; which to inferior animals and 
things; and that, to persons, inferior animals, and things; 

as, 

1. Our Father who art in Heaven. 

2. Pupils who are studious will learn. 
8. Here is the knife which you lost. 

4. This is the child that was sick. 

5. I enclose the money that I owe you. 

EXERCISES. 

274. Name the adjective clauses. Tell what each 
limits, and give the antecedent of each relative pronoun: 

1. The man who can not govern himself is a slave. 

2. This is the knife that I want. 

3. The fur that warms a monarch warmed a bear. 

4. We return to the song that we enjoy. 

5. He who finds pearls dives deep. 

6. The lady whose ring you wear is very generous. 

275. Complete the adjective clauses in the follow- 
ing by filling the blanks with appropriate pronouns. 
Name the antecedent of each: 

1. Those try will succeed. 

2. Some stores offer everything we want. 

3. Monarchs reward the men do their bidding. 

4- AH I have I gained honestly. 

5. Every dollar I have is clear. 

6. The man house I am in is a philanthropist. 

7. He enters here must have a pure heart. 

8. I want a lawyer head is clear. 

9. This is a clerk you can trust. 



128 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

276. Correctly use each of the following relatives 
in sentences of your own construction: 

who whose whom 

which that what 

whoever whosoever whatever 



COMPOSITION. 

277. Study this humorous description of the apple- 
eater till you make the author's thoughts your own: 

THE APPLE-EATER. 

The genuine apple-eater comforts himself with an apple in its 
season, as others with a newspaper. When he has nothing- 
else to do * * * he eats an apple. While he is waiting for a 
train he eats an apple, sometimes several of them. When he 
takes a walk, he arms himself with apples. His traveling bag is 
full of apples. He offers an apple to his companion, and takes 
one himself. They are his chief solace when on the road. He 
sows their seed all along the route. He tosses the core from the 
car window and from the top of the stage-coach. He would, 
in time, make the land one vast orchard. He dispenses with 
a knife. He prefers his teeth shall have the first taste. Then he 
knows the best flavor is immediately beneath the skin, and that 
in a pared apple this is lost If you stew the apple, he says, 
instead of baking it, by all means leave the skin on. It improves 
the color and vastly heightens the flavor of the dish. 

The apple is a masculine fruit; hence women are not apple- 
eaters. It belongs to the open air, and requires an open-air taste 
to relish. 

— John Burroughs. 

Mention all the clauses in the above, and tell which 
are adverbial and which substantive. 

Lay the book aside and reproduce the description. 
Try to use synonyms for the italicized words. Add any 
thought of your own if you wish. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 129 

You may wish to write a similar description. If so, 
perhaps you will choose one of the following subjects: 

The Peanut-Eater. The Croquet-Player. 

The Bicycle-Rider. 

278. Eeview clauses; then write what you know 
of them in a short composition, following the outline 
below. Carefully paragraph what you write. 

Outline. 

1. General definition — give examples. 

2. Classification according to use — define each class and give 
examples. 



CONNECTIVES. 

279. Read these sentences and observe the use of 
the italicized words: 

1. George and Guy read good books. 

2. Both read easily and rapidly. 

3. George reads in English or in French. 

4. Guy studies while he reads. 

5. George reads for pleasure, but Guy reads for profit. 

What word connects two nouns in sentence one ? 
What connects the adverbs in sentence two ? The 
phrases in sentence three? The clauses in sentences 
four and five? 

Words used like and, or, while, and out, to unite 
words, phrases, clauses, or sentences, are called • Con- 
nectives. Connective means joining together. By some 
authors connectives are called Conjunctions. 

A Connective is a word used to join ivords, phrases, 
clauses, or sentences. 



130 PRIM AMY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

280. Mention the connectives in the following, and 
tell what each connects: 

1. His deeds are brave and noble. 

2. Csesar came, and saw, and conquered. 
8. He is poor but proud. 

4. We can travel by land or by water. 

5. We expected snow, but it did not come. 

6. All men should work while they live. 

7. I shall start when the steamer leaves. 

8. They journeyed until night overtook them. 

9. Did you fish in the brook or in the river? 

10. Time and tide wait for no man. 

11. We love him, because he loved us. 

12. The boys will succeed if they are industrious. 

13. The wind blows, for the leaves wave. 

281. Copy the following, filling the blanks with 
appropriate connectives : 



I shall be ready the boat arrives. 

Water oil will not mix. 

We shall not go the day is cold. 

The train was wrecked no one was hurt. 

We made a fire it was cold. 

He raised his hand drew his sword. 

Wait, boys, I come. 

you study, you can not learn. 

He will not come he will send another. 

They left we returned. 



282. Use in sentences each of the following words 
as connectives: 



before 


unless 


till 


because 


yet 


since 


for 


though 


until 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 131 

283. Connectives Classified. 

1. Mary and Lucy came. 

2. Mary may read or write. 

3. Lucy writes slowly hut neatly. 

4. Mary came although she was sick. 

What does each of the above connectives unite? Are 
the parts thus connected in each sentence of equal 
importance or of equal rank? 

Connectives used like and, or, but, and although, 
to connect parts of equal rank, are called Coordinate 
Connectives. 

Coordinate means of equal order or rank. 

A Coordinate Connective is one that connects words, 
phrases, or clauses of equal rank. 

The principal coordinate connectives are: 

and but or nor for also 

1. This is the knife which I found. 

2. You will fail unless you are industrious. 

3. The vase will break if you drop it. 

4. We did not think that the vase would break. 

Name the principal clauses in the above sentences. 
Name the subordinate clauses, and tell what each one 
limits. What connectives unite the subordinate clauses 
with the words which they limit? Are the united 
clauses of equal or unequal rank in the sentences? 

Connectives used like which, if, unless, and that, 
to connect clauses of unequal rank, are called Subordi- 
nate Connectives. 

Subordinate means of loiver order or unequal rank. 

A Subordinate Connective is one that connects clauses 
of unequal rank. 



132 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

The principal subordinate connectives are, 

1. Those used as connectives only: 

if though although unless, etc. 

2. The relative pronouns: 

who which that as 

3. The connective adverbs: 

when where whither 

while whence why 

EXERCISES. 

284. Mention the connectives in the following sen- 
tences. Tell what they connect, and whether they are 
coordinate or subordinate, and why: 

1. Clara can sing and dance. 

2. Julia may go or remain. 

3. Sarah writes, but Susan recites. 

4. Men and women generally love the truth. 

5. This is the watch which I purchased. 

6. The frost was heavy, therefore the leaves will fade. 

7. If you want knowledge, you must study for it. 

8. The evil that men do lives after them. 

9. I know not why he left us. 

10. Make hay while the sun shines. 

11. Remain where you are. 

12. Keep your shop and your shop will keep you. 

13. We saw our friends while we were out. 

285. Write sentences, using as connectives the 
following: 

who if while where 

which unless when whither 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 133 

INTERJECTIONS. 

286. In the following sentences note the words 
that have no grammatical relation to the other words in 
the sentences: 

1. Hurrah! We have won the game. 

2. Oh! I hear the sound of guns. 

3. Ah! Have they gone? 

Name the subject of each of the above sentences. 
Name the predicate of each. What word in sentence 
one forms no part of the subject or predicate? In 
sentence two? In sentence three? What word expresses 
joy? What expresses fear? What expresses surprise? 

Words like Hurrah, Oh, and Ah, used merely to 
express feeling or surprise, are called Interjections. 

Interjection means throio?i in, or among, or between. 

An Interjection is an exclamatory word used merely 
to express strong or sudden emotion. 

The interjection (always a capital letter) is gener- 
ally used with a noun; Oh is used when the interjection 
stands by itself. 

Rule: An interjection is usually folloived by an excla- 
mation point. 

EXERCISES. 

287. Mention the interjections in the following, 
and tell what feeling each one expresses: 

Alas! My hopes are, gone. 
Fie! Fie! It is not true. 
Halloa! Here we are. 
Hark! I hear strains of music. 

5. O Mother! I want that lily. 

6. Ah! I have sighed for rest. 
Well! well! Try again. 
Oh! I die, Horatio. 



134 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

288. Use in sentences each of the following words 
as interjections: 



ah 





ha, ha 


alas 


oh 


fudge 


aha 


help 


indeed 


see 


bravo 


why 


hark 


hurry 


well 


hush 


come 


what 


hurrah 


there 


look 



QUOTATIONS. 

289. Copy the following sentences, and notice what 
punctuation marks are used, and where they are placed 

1. John said, "I wish I had a pony." 

2. "I wish/' said John, "I had a pony." 

3. John said that he wished he had a pony. 

Who said a part of sentences one and two? In which 
of these three sentences are the exact words of John 
used? In which one is John's thought expressed with- 
out the use of his exact words ? 

The repetition of the exact words of another, in the 
expression of thought, is called a direct quotation; as, 
Webster said, (i l still live." The words in such a quota- 
tion are said to be quoted. 

The repetition of another's thought, without the use 
of his exact words, is called an indirect quotation; as, 
Webster said that he still lived. 

The indirect quotation is usually introduced by that, 
sometimes by if, whether, etc. 

Read the quotations above. Which are direct? Which 
is indirect? 

Notice that the quotation in sentence two is divided 
by the interposition of other words. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 135 

290. Rules to be Observed in the Use of Quota- 
tions. 

1. Begin direct quotations with a capital letter when 
they express a complete thought. 

2. Set off direct quotations with a comma, and 
enclose them ivith quotation marks ( " "). 

3. Enclose loth parts of a divided quotation ivith 
quotation marks, and set off by commas the words 
interposed between. 

Jf. Do not enclose indirect quotations ivith quotation 
marks, but set them off by a comma, unless they consist 
of one statement only. 

Obs. — Titles of books, papers, poems, and pictures are often 
enclosed with quotation marks, thus: 

1. Wallace's "Ben Hur." 

2. Carlyle's "Critical Essays." 

3. Longfellow's "Evangeline." 

4. Landseer's "The Last Mourner." 

EXERCISES. 

291. Copy the following sentences. Classify the 
quotations you find, and correctly punctuate and capi- 
talize: 

1. George said I am ready 

2. The girls said that they would sing 

3. Mary asks will you read 

4. I am brave said he and fear no danger 

5. The judge inquired are you guilty 

6. The prisoner muttered I am guilty 

7. I have done no wrong said Hypatia and fear no punishment 

8. John asked Charles how many books he had read 

9. Charles replied that he had read sixteen books 



136 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

292. Write the above sentences, changing the form 
of each quotation — the direct to the indirect, the indi- 
rect to the direct. 

293. Construct six sentences containing quotations 
— three direct, and three indirect. 



COMPOSITION. 

294. Commit to memory the following adaptation 
of vEsop's Fable: 

THE WOLF AND THE LAMB. 

A wolf saw a lamb drinking at a brook, and set about find- 
ing some reason for catching him. So he went to a place a 
little higher up and called out: 

"How dare you muddle the water that I am drinking?" 

' ' How can I, " said the lamb, humbly, ' ' when I drink with 
the tips of my lips only? And, besides, the water runs from 
you to me, not from me to you!" 

"Well, you called my father names a year ago," said the 
wolf, readily finding another reason. 

"I was not born a year ago," said the poor lamb. 

"You may make ever so good excuses," said the wolf, finally; 
"I shall eat you all the same." 

This fable teaches that, when one has made up his mind to 
do wrong, he is not stopped by the best of reasons. 

— From "Fables and Folk Stories," by Horace E. Scudder. 

Note carefully how all marks of punctuation are 
used, and be prepared to write and punctuate the fable 
from dictation. How many quotations are there in this 
fable? Are they direct or indirect? 

Rewrite the fable, using indirect quotations instead of 
direct. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 137 

Write a similar story. Choose, if you wish, one of 
the subjects given below: 

The Ox and the Horse. The Bee and the Butterfly. 
The Cat and the Dog. The Farmer and the Merchant. 

295. Beview connectives; then, following the out- 
line below, write what you know of them in the form 
of a composition. 

Otttlixe. 

1. General definition — give examples. 

2. Classification according to use — define each class and give 
examples. 



ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. 

296. The Elements Classified. 

1. Some men are students of music. 

2. Many men now study music. 

What word in sentence one names those about whom 
something is said? What in sentence two? 

A word used like men, in the above — to name that 
about which something is said — is called the gram- 
matical or simple subject. 

What word in sentence two represents, indefinitely, 
what is said of men? What two words in sentence one 
represent what is said of men? 

A word like study, or a combination of words like 
are students, used to represent what is asserted of the 
subject, is called the grammatical or simple predicate. 

What words, in the above, are modifiers of the gram- 
matical subjects? 

10 



138 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

The grammatical subject combined with all its modi- 
fiers is called the logical or complex subject. 

What phrase limits the grammatical predicate in 
sentence one? What word in sentence two limits study 
by telling when men study? What word, - by telling 
what men study? Name the modifiers of the above 
grammatical predicates. 

The grammatical predicate combined with all its 
modifiers is called the logical or complex predicate. 

The grammatical subject and the grammatical predi- 
cate are essential to every sentence; hence they are 
called the Principal Elements; as, 

1. Some men are students of music. 

2. Many men now study music. 

Words, or groups of words, used as mere modifiers of 
other words, are called Subordinate Elements; as, 

1. Some men are students of music. 

2. Many men now study music. 

EXERCISES. 

297. Copy the following and underline the princi- 
pal elements. Tell what each subordinate element limits, 
and name the logical subject and the logical predicate 
of each sentence: 

1. The children skate gracefully. 

2. The old clock stopped short. 

3. Some plants grow fast. 

4. Blue diamonds are very rare. 

5. Kind words are seldom forgotten. 

6. High mountains are grand. 

7. The ear is the soul's gateway. 

8. A free people should be educated. 

9. Life's course is short. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 139 

10. Scipio routed Hannibal's forces. 

11. The new academy is well built. 

12. The minister loves little children. 

13. No man can serve two masters. 



298. Forms of Principal Elements. 

The grammatical subject must be a substantive. In 
form it may be, 

1. A noun or pronoun: 

1. The men are young. 

2. They fight their foes. 

3. Some days must be dark. 

4. Some stars are suns. 

5. He lives where it never rains. 

6. Napoleon was Emperor of France. 



A phrase: 



1. 

2. 
3. 
4- 
5. 


To steal is base. 

To work hard is honorable. 

To see is to believe. 

To speak deceitfully is sin. 

To study should be a pleasure. 


A clause: 







1. That you have wronged me doth appear. 

2 . Why he left is unknown. 

3. Who wrote the letter is uncertain. 

4. How can we go is the question? 

5. When we shall write is uncertain. 

EXERCISES. 

299. Mention the grammatical subject of each of 
the foregoing sentences, and tell its form. 



140 PBIMABY GRAMMAR. 

300. Construct sentences, one having a noun as 
subject, one a pronoun, one an infinitive, and one a 
clause. 

301. The grammatical predicate must be a finite verb 
or a copulative verb (see section 89), with an attribute. 

Thus it may be, 

1. A single verb: 

1. We live in the city. 

2. I saw her yesterday. 

3. Lucy reads poetry. 

4. Study your lessons faithfully. 

5. Washington gained the victory. 

2. A verb -phrase: 

1. We have lived in the country. 

2. He may have lived in Europe. 

3. My son will have finished his work to-morrow. 

4. How merrily the birds do sing! 

5. You may be surprised at this. 

3. A copulative verb and attribute: 

1. Horses are quadrupeds. 

2. James is successful. 

3. The fruit is ripe. 
If.. He is needy. 

5. He is in need (needy). 

6. The gates are of pearl (pearly). 

EXERCISES. 

302. Mention the grammatical predicate of each of 
the foregoing sentences, and describe its form. 

303. Construct sentences, some having a single 
verb as predicate, some a verb-phrase, and some a 
copulative verb and attribute. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 141 

304. In the following sentences are shown the 
various forms of the attribute as a part of the gram- 
matical predicate. The attribute may be, 

1. A word — noun, pronoun, or adjective: 



1. 


It was he. 


4. 


Gold is soft. 


2. 


He is proud. 


5. 


Iron is a metal. 


3. 


It will be cold. 


6. 


It is they. 



2. A phrase — prepositional or infinitive: 

1. To think is to speak low. 

2. To speak is to think aloud. 

3. The child is without friends. 
I^. The table was of onyx. 

5. To study is to learn. 

8. A clause: 

1. The question is where shall we go. 

2. My opinion was that you should travel. 

3. His inquiry will be, "Who is there?" 

4. My reply was, "How can we go?" 

5. The rumor is that he is wounded. 

EXERCISES. 

305. Mention the attribute in each of the fore- 
going sentences, and describe its form. 

306. Construct sentences, some having a noun as 
attribute, some a pronoun, some a prepositional phrase, 
some an infinitive, and some a clause. 

307. Classification of Subordinate Elements. 

According to their use, subordinate elements are 
classified as Adjective, Objective, and Adverbial. 



142 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

308. An Adjective Element is one that limits a 
noun or pronoun. In form it may be, 

1. A word — an adjective or a noun: 

1. Wise men are useful. 

2. His prospects are good. 

3. The people honor great men. 

4. A boy's will is the wind's will. 

5. My son John is faithful. 

2. A phrase — prepositional, participial, or infinitive: 

1. Men of wisdom can be useful. 

2. That man coming yonder is my uncle. 

3. Time to come is called future. 

4. A child severely hurt will cry. 

5. The way to prosper is to work. 

6. His journey to the White House was triumphant. 

S. A clause: 

1. Men who are wise are usually modest. 

2. This is the stanza that I wrote. 

S. He who runs may read the signs. 

4. The reason why he left is unknown. 

5. He prayeth best who loveth best. 

6. Those who live in glass houses should not throw 

stones. 

EXERCISES. 

309. Mention the adjective elements in the fore- 
going. Give their form, and tell what each one limits. 

310. Write sentences, containing adjective elements 
— two in the word-form, two in the phrase-form, and 
two in the clause-form. 

311. An Objective Element is one that limits a 
transitive vero or verbal, by telling tuhat or whom the 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 143 

action affects. It may be known by its answering the 
question, luliat? or whom? In form it may be, 

1. A word — a noun or pronoun: 

1. May saw Mabel. 

2. Joseph helped me. 

3. She heard the news. 

4. Did you see the eclipse? 

5. Hear the sledges with the bells. 

6. Can a mother forget her child? 

2. A phrase — participial or infinitive: 

1. We expect to see better days. 

2. They enjoy writing letters. 

3. The children are learning to read. 

4. He admits having done a wrong. 

5. Few boys enjoy chopping wood. 

6. The bird intends to fly. 

3. A clause: 

1. I see that you improve. 

2. Do you know why he wrote the letter? 

3. We hope to hear that you are prosperous. 

4. Did you know that I was promoted? 

5. I know that our nation is free. 



EXERCISES. 

312. Mention the objective elements in the fore- 
going. Give their form, and tell what each one limits. 

313. TV rite sentences, containing objective elements 
— three in the word-form, three in the phrase-form, 
and two in the clause-form. 

314. An Adverbial Element is one that limits a 
verb or verbal, an adjective or adverb, by denoting time, 



144 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

place, cause, manner, or degree. It may be known by 
its answering the questions, token ? where f why ?. how f 
or how much? In form it may be, 

1. A word — an adverb: 

1. We shall be ready soon. 

2. To-morroio I will see you. 

3. The cars run rapidly. 

4. Our hopes are very bright. 

5. We arrived quite early. 

6. That is a very good excuse. 

7. Sometimes people ask strange questions. 

2. A phrase — prepositional or infinitive: 

1. Shall we arrive on time? 

2. They will move in the winter. 

3. The boys rowed along the shore. 
If.. We shall sail down the Hudson. 

5. I went to see the paintings. 

6. They came to scoff, but remained to pray. 

3. A clause: 

1. The violets will appear when spring comes. 

2. If you work you will prosper. 

3. He prospers because he works. 
If. We work that we may prosper. 

• 5. Careless people speak before they think. 

6. I did as he told me. 

7. When showers fall, plants grow. 

EXERCISES. 

315. Mention the adverbial elements in the fore- 
going. G-ive their form, and tell what each one limits. 

316. Write sentences, containing adverbial elements 
— three in the word-form, three in the phrase-form, 
and three in the clause-form. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 145 

317. Independent Elements. 

Interjections, names of persons addressed, and words 
or phrases merely introductory have no grammatical 
relation to other words, and are called Independent Ele- 
ments, thus: 

1. Hurrah! The game is won. 

2. Well, what shall we do? 

3. father! I want that diamond. 

4. Mary, have you read "Vivian"? 

5. My dear sir, hear my argument. 

6. By the way, have you heard the news? 

7. Fellow-citizens, we have met for a purpose. 

8. Hark! How merrily the bells jingle! 

9. Soft! I did but dream! 

10. O mother! Can you not forgive? 

11. Hush! my babe, lie still and slumber. 

12. Bravo! That strain was exquisite. 
IS. Oh! speak again, bright angel. 

318. Rules for Punctuation. 

1. The exclamation point should follow the inter- 
jection and the exclamatory phrase. 

2. Set off by commas words used in address, and 
those merely introductory. 

EXERCISES. 

319. Mention the principal and the independent 
elements in the foregoing sentences. Tell whether the 
latter are interjections, words of address, or introductory. 

320. Write sentences, containing independent ele- 
ments — two of each as above described. 



146 FBI MARY GRAMMAR. 

LETTER WRITING. 

321. In the following letter observe carefully the 
arrangement, the capital letters, and the punctuation: 



A LETTER. {Heat 

Ottawa, 111. 
{Introduction.) December 26, 1896. 

Dear Frank: {Body.) 

It is a cold winter morning. Sister Julia and I are enjoying 
our Christmas presents to the fullest extent. They were few but 
very pretty. 

Julia and I are going to the park day after to-morrow for a 
good skate. The ice is very thick and smooth. The skating is 
excellent. The snow is ten inches deep here, and the coasting 
on the hillside is fine. We spent two hours there yesterday very 
happily. 

Come over and enjoy the sports with us. Bring Susie with 
you. Do not forget your skates or your sled. We shall have a 
good time coasting. 

We shall have a large number of boys and girls present. 
The more the better. I will introduce you to each and every 
one of our friends here. I know you will find them pleasant 
companions. Hoping to see you at the appointed time,, I am, 

{Subscription.) 
Yours sincerely, 

George Granger. 

Copy the above letter, and notice that it consists of four 
parts — the heading, introduction, body, and subscription. 

The heading consists of (1) the name of the place, (2) 
the date of the ivriti7ig. 

The introduction consists of (1) the address, (2) the 
salutation. 

In letters of friendship, the address is usually omitted 
from the introduction. 

The body consists of the message. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 147 

The subscription consists of (1) the term of respect, 
(2) the signature. 

Notice the paragraphs in the body, and be prepared 
to write and pnnctnate all parts of the letter as above 
from dictation. 

The superscription of a letter is the address on the 
envelope. It should be written as shown in the diagram. 




Imagine that you are " Frank Mayo" and write an 
answer to " George Granger." 

Write a letter of three paragraphs to your brother in 
Danville, Ky., about the events of yesterday. 

Write a letter of four paragraphs to your sister in 
Nashville, Tenn., telling her how you spent your Christ- 
mas holidays. 



322. Elements of the Sentence Classified Ac- 
cording to Structure. 

According to structure an element may also be 
Simple, Complex, or Compound. 

A Simple Element is one having no modifier. 

A Complex Element is a simple element combined 
ivith its modifiers. 

A Compound Element is an element consisting of tivo 
or more simple or complex elements united by a coordi- 
nate connective. 



148 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

323. Forms of the Subject. 

The subject may be, 

1. Simple: 

John studies history. 

To read is instructive. 

Iron is the most useful of metals. 

4. To steal is base and criminal. 

5. To paint a cloud is very difficult. 
God paints the lily white. 

2. Complex: 

1. Ten men volunteered to help. 

2. To walk along the beach is pleasant. 

3. Skating on ice is fine sport. 

4. Strange music was heard. 

5. To sing among the branches is a bird's delight. 

6. Riding on horseback is healthful exercise. 

7. To study faithfully is to be wise. 

8. Compound: 

1. Jane and Julia attend school. 

2. To work and to play are pleasures. 

3. Jumping the rope and rolling the hoop is the 
girls' sport. 

4. John or James will be present. 

5. Ice and snow melt in spring. 

6. Illinois and Iowa are important states. 

7. Adjectives and adverbs are modifiers. 

Obs. — The modified part of any complex element is called its 



The elements united to form a compound element are called 
members. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 149 

EXERCISES. 

324. Name and classify the subjects in the forego- 
ing sentences. Name the members of each compound 
subject, and the connective which joins them. Name 
the basis of each complex subject, and its modifier. 

325. Construct sentences — two with a simple sub- 
ject, two with a compound, and three with a complex. 

326. Forms of the Predicate. 

The predicate may be, 

1. Simple: 

1. The streets are long. 

2. The dear child lias arrived. 

3. The cold of winter is severe. 

4. Some stars are suns. 

5. Our books and slates are new. 

6. Beautiful is the setting sun. 

2. Complex: 

1. The streets are very long. 

2. The girls sing well. 

3. Our goods were soon sold. 

4. Were the pictures very pretty? 

5. William Tell was a skillful archer. 

6. Longfellow wrote many great poems. 

S. Compound: 

1. The girls sing and dance. 

2. The men may walk or ride. 

3. Our streets are long and wide. 

4. His goods are new and fresh. 

5. Were the parlors light and cheery? 

6. Are we early or late? 



150 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

327. Name and classify the predicates of the fore- 
going sentences. Name the members of such as are 
compound and the connectives that unite them. 

328. Construct two sentences with a simple predi- 
cate, three with a complex, and three with a compound. 

Obs. — Notice that the bases of the complex subject and the 
complex predicate are the same as the grammatical subject and 
grammatical predicate. 

329. Forms of the Adjective Element. 

The adjective element may be, 

1. Simple: 

1. Morning is a good time to study. 

2. They were students of history. 

3. You have liberty to write. 

4. Strange reports arose. 

5. He advanced fifty dollars. 

6. Did you gather wild roses? 

2. Complex: 

1. Youth is the best time to gain knowledge. 

2. The boys are students of ancient history. 

3. Very strange reports arose. 

4. They are workmen of great skill. 

5. You have my permission to join the class. 

6. The effort to overthrow error is praiseworthy. 

3. Compound: 

1. The prairies of Illinois and Iowa are fertile. 

2. This is the truth, pure and simple. 

3. We have forces armed and ready. 

4. He spoke words, violent but true. 

5. The hills of New York resemble those of Maine 

and Vermont. 

6. You have time to study and to play. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 151 

EXEECISES. 

330. Classify the adjective elements in the foregoing 
and tell what they limit. Name the bases of such as are 
complex, the members of such as are compound, and the 
connectives that unite them. 

331. Write sentences — two having a simple adjec- 
tive element, two a complex, and two a compound. 

332. Forms of the Objective Element. 

The objective element may be, 

1. Simple : 

1. He and I intend to go. 

2. We saw forests. 

3. I desire to travel. 

4. I shall dismiss you soon. 

5. Do you like to study? 

6. We heard music. 

2. Complex: 

1. He and I intend to go south. 

2. We saw great forests. 

3. She danced a minuet. 

4. We played a winning game. 

5. Did you see that beautiful rocket? 

6. I desire to travel in Europe. 

S. Compound: 

1. We expect to go and to succeed. 

2. We saw forests and fields. 

3. Bring a pen or a pencil. 

4. Farmers harvest wheat, oats, and rye. 

5. Merchants sell boots, shoes, hats, and caps. 

6. Shall we find gold or silver? 



152 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

333. Classify the objective elements in the foregoing 
and tell what they each limit. Name the bases of such 
as are complex and the members of such as are compound, 
and the connectives uniting them. 

334. Write two sentences having a simple objective 
element, two a complex, and two a compound. 

335. Forms of the Adverbial Element. 

The adverbial element may be, 

1. Simple: 

1. We have come to learn. 

2. Good students are always prompt. 

3. They will arrive to-morrow. 

4. Will he return immediately? 

5. The old home still remains. 

6. We shall sail before night. 

2. Complex: 

1. We have come to learn grammar. 

2. Good students are nearly always prompt. 

3. We shall arrive very soon. 

4. Will you walk across the meadow? 

5. They may have ridden through the town. 

6. He reads very well. 

3. Compound: 

1. Men travel to see and to learn. 

2. We shall travel in France or in Spain. 

3. How swiftly and gracefully the birds fly! 

4. They live peaceably and happily. 

5. Shall we start to-day or to-morrow? 

6. We may read for pleasure or for profit. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 153 

EXERCISES. 

336. Classify the adverbial elements in the foregoing, 
and tell what each limits. Name the bases of such as 
are complex, the members of such as are compound, and 
the connectives used to unite them. 

337. Write sentences, containing adverbial elements, 
two simple, two complex, and two compound. 

338. Arrangement of the Elements. 

The natural order of the elements is, 

1. The grammatical subject preceded by its word 
modifiers, and followed by its phrase and clause 
modifiers: 

1. The days of childhood are pleasant. 

2. The tornadoes are very destructive. 

2. The grammatical predicate followed by its objec- 
tive modifiers, and usually by its adverbial: 

1. Time is measured by years. 

2. They soon found a home in Iowa. 

3. He certainly will come to-morrow. 

For the sake of emphasis, and to change a sentence 
from the declarative to an interrogative or imperative 
form, the natural order is changed to the inverted order: 

1. Pleasant are the days of childhood. 

2. By years, time is measured. 

3. Homes in Iowa, they soon found. 

4. Come to-morrow, he certainly will. 

5. Are the tornadoes very destructive? 

For the sake of clearness, subordinate elements should 
be placed as near as possible to the words which they 
are intended to limit: 



154 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

1. I bought a pair of new shoes (not a new pair, etc.). 

2. We know well how he acted (not how he acted well). 

3. I have only four days to finish (not to finish only). 

4. The man who is sick needs a physician (not The man needs a 
physician who is sick). 

5. Found, by a gentleman, a gold watch with steel hands (not 
Found, a gold watch, by a gentleman with steel hands). 

EXERCISES. 

339. Change to their natural order the elements in 
the following. Name the principal elements. Name the 
subordinate elements and tell whether they are words, 
phrases, or clauses, and tell what they each limit: 

1. Blessed are the peacemakers. 

2. On the ice, gather the schoolboys. 

3. Divine is the hand that made us. 

4. An able statesman was Webster. 

5. From the north comes a wintry blast. 

6. Because He first loved us, we love Him. 

7. Against the rocks dash the waves. 

8. Is croquet your favorite game? 

9. To kindred hearts, hearts respond. 

10. May this bud prove a beautiful flower. 

340. Write four sentences, using the inverted order. 



LETTER WRITING. 

341. Study the following letters until you can write 
them correctly from dictation: 

BUSINESS LETTERS. 

Business letters should be clear, brief, direct, and 
courteous. All matters not connected with the business 
at hand should be excluded. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 155 

Kalamazoo, Mich., April 22, 1897. 
The Detroit Free Press, 
Detroit, Mich. 
Dear Sirs: I enclose you one dollar (currency) for one year's 
subscription to the Semi- Weekly Free Press. 

Please send same regularly to my address as below, and 

greatly oblige, 

Yours respectfully, 

Robert Seymour, 

120 King Street, 

La Salle, 111., Dec. 23, 1896. 
Montgomery Ward & Co., 

Ill to 122 Michigan Av., Chicago. 
Dear Sirs: Please send me by first express one pair of skates 
of the size suitable for a boy of twelve years. 

I enclose post-office order for two dollars, (the price named in 
your catalogue). 

Yours truly, 

Asa Dunn, 

46 High Street. 

192 Wood St., Chicago, 111., 
Curtis Publishing Co., Dec. 10, 1896. 

Philadelphia, Pa. 
Gentlemen: Enclosed please find draft for three dollars 
($3.00) for three subscriptions to Ladies' Home Journal for one 
year beginning with the January number, 1897. 

Address George Daily, 220 State St.; Maud Sampson, 222 State 
St., and myself. 

Yours very truly, 

Ira Moore. 



342. Having made yourself familiar with the 
arrangement, punctuation, and use of capitals in the 
above, write letters as here directed. 

Write a letter to Marshall Field & Co., State and 
Washington streets, Chicago, ordering a pair of kid 
gloves, a necktie, and a pair of cuff buttons. 



156 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Write a letter to Band, McNally & Co., Publishers, 
Chicago, asking for a price list of their publications. 

Write a letter to a friend in Fresno, Cal., asking for 
the facts about the climate of California, and the price 
of a ten-acre vineyard. 

Write a letter to your absent father, describing a pony 
and asking for money to buy it. 



THE SENTENCE — ITS CLASSIFICATION. 

343. Sentences Classified According- to Form. 

1. Guy has a white dog. 

2. Guy has a dog that is white. 

3. Guy has a dog and it is white. 

Which of the above sentences contains but one clause? 
Name its subject and its predicate. Which contains a 
principal and a subordinate clause? Which one contains 
two clauses of equal rank? 

According to form, all sentences like number one are 
simple; like two are complex; or like three are compound. 

A Simple Sentence is one which contains but one 
clause. 

A Complex Sentence is one which contains one princi- 
pal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. 

A Compound Sentence is one which contains two or 
more principal clauses. 

Analysis of the Sentence. 

344. The Simple Sentence. 

Analysis in grammar is resolving a sentence into its 
elements and giving the office of each. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 157 

In analyzing, observe the following Order of Anal- 
ysis: (1) Name the kind of sentence — whether simple, 
complex, or compound; declarative, interrogative, impera- 
tive, or exclamatory. (2) Name the simple subject. 
(3) Name the simple predicate. (4) Name the modi- 
fiers of the subject. (5) Name the complex subject. 
(6) Name the modifiers of the predicate. (7) Name 
the complex predicate. 

The following analyses may serve as guides or models: 

345. Simple Elements. 

Model I. — Birds fly. 

This is a sentence, simple and declarative. (Why?) 
Birds is the subject because it represents that object of 
which something is asserted;^ is the predicate, because it 
represents that action which is asserted of the subject. 

This analysis may be expressed by placing a horizon- 
tal line of convenient length between the subject and 
the predicate: 

Birds fly. 

EXERCISES. 

346. Analyze the following simple sentences: 

1. Birds carol. 4. Girls sing. 

2. Fishes swim. 5. Reading enlightens. 

3. Children play. 6. Study cultivates. 

Note. — At first require the pupil to give reasons for each 
statement in the analysis. 

347. Complex Elements. 

Model II.— Some birds fly rapidly. 

This is a simple, declarative sentence, of which birds 



158 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

is the simple subject, and fly is the simple predicate. 
The subject is limited by some, an adjective element. 
Some birds is the complex subject. The predicate is 
limited by rapidly, an adverbial element. Fly rapidly 
is the complex predicate. 

This analysis may be expressed by writing the prin- 
cipal elements as in Model I, and placing the subordi- 
nate elements under the words which they limit, and a 
little to the right: 

birds fly 

Some rapidly 

EXERCISES. 

348. Analyze the following sentences: 

1. Some men work hard. 3. The days pass pleasantly. 

2. Few men overwork. 4. Ten years have gone already. 

349. Write four sentences containing adjective and 
adverbial elements. 



350. Complex Elements (Objective Modifier). 

Model III. — The boys study ancient history. 

This is a simple, declarative sentence, of which boys 
is the simple subject, and study is the simple predicate. 
The subject is limited by the, an adjective element. 
The boys is the complex subject. The predicate is 
limited by ancient history, an objective element, complex, 
of which history, the basis, is limited by ancient, an 
adjective element; study ancient history is the complex 
predicate. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



159 



This analysis may be written as in Model II, with 
the addition that a symbol is used with history to show 
that it is objective and not adverbial: 



boys — 


- study 


The 


history 




ancient 



EXERCISES. 
351. Analyze the following: 



My kitten caught three mice. 
Franklin invented the lightning-rod. 
The body requires good food. 
Liars should have good memories. 
The king possesses great power. 
Does might make right? 
Hard words are soft arguments. 
A man's house is his castle. 



352. Write four sentences, each containing an adjec- 
tive element and an objective. 

353. Compound Elements (Attribute). 

Model IV. — Virtue and happiness are mother and daughter. 

This is a simple, declarative sentence, of which virtue 
and happiness is the compound subject, and are mother 
and daughter is the compound predicate. The first and 
unites the members of the subject ; the second and 
unites the members of the predicate. 

This analysis may be written by connecting the com- 
pound elements with a brace, and by writing an oblique 
cross to show that the attribute is a part of the simple 

predicate : 

f Virtue ( mother 

■j and are X \ and 

( happiness ( daughter 



160 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

354. Analyze the following: 

1. Mary and George sing and play. 

2. Clouds and storms darken the sky. 

3. Schools and books train and furnish the mind. 

4. Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution. 

5. Actions are our epochs. 

6. Is Nature God's art? 

355. Write four sentences, each containing a com- 
pound subject, or predicate, or both. Be prepared to 
analyze them. 

356. Compound Elements (Objective Modifier). 

Model V. — Take this peach and that apple. 

This is a simple, imperative sentence, of which thou 
understood is the subject, and take is the simple predi- 
cate. The subject is unlimited. The predicate is limited 
by this peach and that apple, a compound objective 
element, both members of which are complex. Peach, 
the basis of the first member is limited by this, an 
adjective element; apple, the basis of the second, is 
limited by that, an adjective element. And is the con- 
nective. Take this peach and that apple is the complex 
predicate. 

This analysis may be written thus: 

(thou) Take 

f peach 
this 
\ and 
| apple 
I that 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 161 

EXERCISES. 

357. Analyze the following: 

1. We crossed the forest and the glen. 

2. They study grammar, history, and arithmetic. 

3. Do you see the moon and the stars? 

4. Hear the sledges and the bells! 

5. Horses eat grass, hay, and grain. 

358. Construct three sentences, having compound 
objective elements, and write the analysis of each. 



LETTER WRITING. 

FORMAL AND INFORMAL NOTES. 

359. Familiarize yourselves with the following forms 
and be prepared to write letters modeled on them: 

An Informal Invitation. 

In letters of invitation the date is placed at the close, 
as in the following. Many prefer it so placed in letters 
of friendship: 

Dear Pupils: If Saturday is a bright day I should be glad to 
have you go with me on an " Open-Eye " excursion. Each one 
will need to bring a pair of bright eyes, a microscope, a small field 
glass, and a small but strong hammer. We can put our "findings" 
into our empty lunch baskets. 

Hoping you can go with us, I am, 

Your friend and teacher, 

Earnestine Harris. 
Harwood, Sept. 29, 1896. 



162 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



The Reply. 



Dear Miss Harris: I shall be very glad to go with the " Open- 
Eye Club " Saturday. I thank you for thinking of so nice a plan 
for a happy holiday. I will bring a small book made of blotting 
paper in which to press any flowers or ferns we may find, and a 
few envelopes for seeds. What a fine time we shall have! 

Your grateful pupil, 

Rachel Elkins. 
Harwood, Sept, 30, 1896. 

Imagine yourself to have been a member of this 
" Open-Eye Club/' and write a letter to a friend describ- 
ing your excursion. State the number who went on the 
excursion, what specimens you found, what use you made 
of microscope, glass, and hammer. 

Be careful to place the date in the lower left-hand 
corner, and one line lower than that on which the 
subscription is written. In informal letters it is not 
customary to write the name or address of the person 
addressed in the letter. In formal letters, beginning 
with "Dear Sir/' "Dear Madam/' "Sir," " Gentlemen/' 
etc., the name and address should be placed in the upper 
left-hand corner of the page. 

Write a letter of invitation to a friend, inviting him 
or her to attend a Nutting Party. Write a reply to an 
invitation to a Game of Tennis. 



360. Complex Elements (the Participle as a 
Noun). 

Model VI. — 1. Riding fast is sometimes enjoyable. 
2. I regret having written the letter. 

1. This is a simple, declarative sentence, of which 
the verbal riding is the simple subject, and is enjoy- 
able is the simple predicate. The subject is limited by 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 163 

fast, an adverbial element. Riding fast is the complex 
subject. The predicate is limited by sometimes, an 
adverbial element. Is sometimes enjoyable is the com- 
plex predicate. 

The analyses of sentences one and two may be writ- 
ten thus: 

Riding is X enjoyable 

fast sometimes 

I regret 

having written 
letter 
the 

EXERCISES. 

361. Analyze the following: 

i. Reading steadily often injures the eyes. 

2. Walking rapidly is a recreation. 

3. Sawing wood is good exercise. 

4. Earning money is a duty. 

362. Analyze the following, containing participial 
phrases used as objective elements: 

1. Boys enjoy skating fast. 

2. He dislikes rising early. 

3. We dread crossing the ocean. 

363. Construct four sentences — two using a par- 
ticipial phrase as the subject, and two using a participial 
phrase as the objective element. Write the analysis of 
each. 

364. Complex Elements (the Participle as an 
Adjective Modifier). 

Model VII. — Hopes fondly cherished are sometimes blighted. 

This is a simple, declarative sentence, of which hopes. 



164 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

is the simple subject, and are Uighted is the simple 
predicate. The subject is limited by the phrase fondly 
cherished, an adjective element, complex, of which 
cherished, the basis, is limited by fondly, an adverbial 
element. Hopes fondly cherished is the complex subject. 
The predicate is limited by sometimes, an adverbial ele- 
ment. Are sometimes Uighted is the complex predicate. 
This analysis may be written thus : 

Hopes are blighted 

cherished sometimes 

fondly 

EXERCISES. 

365. Analyze the following: 

1. The sailors, quickly diving, recovered the treasures. 

2. Firmly united, they withstood the foe. 

3. Help, willingly given, is acceptable. 

366. Construct three sentences, containing a par- 
ticipial phrase used as an adjective element. Write the 
analysis of each. 

367. Complex Elements (the Infinitive as a 

Noun). 

Model VIII. — To bear our fate is to conquer it. 

This is a simple, declarative sentence, of which to hear 
is the simple subject, and is to conquer is the simple 
predicate. Is is the copula, and the phrase to conquer 
is the attribute. The subject is limited by our fate, an 
objective element, complex, of which fate, the basis, is 
limited by our, an adjective element. To bear our fate 
is the complex subject. The predicate is limited by it, 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 165 

an objective element. Is to conquer it is the complex 
predicate. 

This analysis may be written thus: 



To bear — 


— is X to conquer 


fate 


it° 


our 





EXERCISES. 

368. Analyze the following: 

1. To obey law is a duty. 

2. To delay longer is unsafe. 

3. To see the sun is pleasant. 

369. Construct three sentences, each containing an 
infinitive phrase used as the subject. Write the analysis 
of each. 

370. Analyze the following sentences containing 
infinitive phrases used as adjective elements: 

1. A desire to excel is praiseworthy. 

2. The time to begin has come. 

3. The way to learn is to study. 

371. Construct three sentences, using an infinitive 
phrase as an adjective element. Write the analysis of 
each. 

372. Analyze the following sentences containing 
infinitive phrases as adverbial elements: 

1. We left the path to gather flowers. 

2. They came to visit me. 

3. I come to bury Caesar. 

4. He rose to speak. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

373. Construct three sentences, each containing an 
infinitive phrase used as an adverbial element. Write 
the analysis of each. 

374. Analyze the following sentences containing 
infinitive phrases used as objective elements: 

1. We intend to see the show. 

2. They have learned to sing. 

3. I love to fly my kite. 

375. Construct three sentences, each containing an 
infinitive phrase used as an objective element. Write 
the analysis of each. 

Obs. — In the analysis of the sentences under Sections 370, 
372, and 374 vary the model so as to give the correct name to 
each element. 

376. Complex Elements (the Copulative Verb). 

Model IX. — Men of industry soon become men of much wealth. 

This is a simple, declarative sentence, of which men 
is the simple subject, and become men is the simple 
predicate; become is the copulative verb, and men is 
the attribute. The subject is limited by the phrase of 
industry, an adjective element. Men of industry is the 
complex subject. The predicate is limited first by soon, 
an adverbial element, and second by the phrase of much 
ivealth, an adjective element, complex, of which tvealth, 
the basis, is limited by much, an adjective element. 
Soon become men of much ivealth is the complex predicate. 

This analysis may be written thus: 

Men become X men 

of industry soon 

of wealth 
much 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 167 

EXERCISES. 

377. Analyze the following: 

1. Tidings of success fly fast. 

2. A life of love is the life of heaven. 

3. Tints of beauty paint the sky. 

4. The time for study is past. 

5. Scenes in Nature should be lessons for us. 

6. The people along the road kindly cheered us. 

378. Construct three sentences, each containing a 
prepositional phrase used as an adjective element. Write 
the analysis of each. 

379. Analyze the following sentences containing 
phrases used as adverbial elements. Use Model IX, but 
vary it so as to give the correct name to the elements: 

1. The boat was on the shore. 

2. There it lay for several hours. 

3. I was led across the meadow. 

4. Roaming among the hills is pleasant. 

5. The dew is on the grass again. 

6. We shall meet in due time. 

380. Construct three sentences, each containing a 
prepositional phrase used as an adverbial element. 
Write the analysis of each. 

381. Independent Elements. 

Model X. — 1. Hark! I hear music. 

This is a simple, declarative sentence, of which / is 
the subject and hear is the simple predicate. The sub- 
ject is unlimited. The predicate is limited by music, an 
objective element. Hear music is the complex predicate. 
Hark! is an independent element. 



168 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

This analysis may be written thus: 

Hark! 

I hear 

music 

2. By the way, have you heard the news? 

The analysis of this sentence may be written thus: 

By way 

the 

you have heard 

news 
the 

EXERCISES. 

382. Analyze the following sentences: 

1. Mary, will you shut that door? 

2. Sir, you can not have it. 

3. Oh, look at that parade! 

4. Oh, sir, can this be true? 

5. Poor man! how he suffers! 

383. Construct four sentences, each containing an 
independent element. Write the analysis of each. 

384. The Complex Sentence. 

A Complex Sentence is one which contains one prin- 
cipal clause and one or more subordinate clauses; as, 

1. He who sows Ms land trusts in God. 

2. Will you write while I dictate ? 

385. The Clause as an Adjective Element. 

Model XI. — He that spares vice wrongs virtue. 

This is a complex, declarative sentence; it contains a 
principal and a subordinate clause, and declares some- 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 169 

thing. He ivrongs virtue is the principal clause, and 
that spares vice is the subordinate. He is the simple 
subject of the principal clause, and ivrongs is the simple 
predicate. The subject is limited by the clause that 
spares vice, an adjective element. He that spares vice 
is the complex subject of the principal clause. The 
predicate is limited by virtue, an objective element. 
Wrongs virtue is the complex predicate of the principal 
clause. 

That is the subject of the subordinate clause, and 
spares is the simple predicate. The subject is unlimited. 
The predicate is limited by vice, an objective element. 
Spares vice is the complex predicate. That is also the 
connective. 

This analysis may be written thus: 

He wrongs 

that spares virtue 

vice 

Obs. — Place the subject of the modifying clause under the 
word which it limits, and the connective under the word which it 
limits. When the connective is not a modifier, place it (followed 
by the subject) under the word which the clause limits. 

Underscore all subordinate connectives to indicate their office. 



EXERCISES. 
386. Analyze the following: 

1. John has the watch that I sold. 

2 . The pupil that studies will learn. 

3. We love the home where we were born. 
//.. Days which are gone never return. 

5. The reason why I came is understood. 

6. A man who is rich is envied. 

7. We never can be deathless till we die. 

12 



170 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

387. Construct four complex sentences, each con- 
taining a clause used as an adjective element. Write 
the analysis of each. 

388. The Clause as an Objective Element. 

Model XII. — I knew that he would come soon. 

This is a complex, declarative sentence, of which I 
knew is the principal clause, and that lie ivould come 
soon, the subordinate. 

/ is the subject of the principal clause, and knew is 
the simple predicate. The subject is unlimited. The 
predicate is limited by the clause that he would soon 
come, an objective element. 

He is the subject of the subordinate clause, and 
would come is the simple predicate. The subject is 
unlimited. The predicate is limited by soon, an adverbial 
element. Would come soon is the complex predicate of 
the clause. That is the connective. 

This analysis may be written thus: 

I knew 

that he would come 

soon 

389. The Clause as an Adverbial Element. 

Model XIII.— Go where duty calls thee. 

This is a complex, imperative sentence, of which Go 
(thou) is the principal clause, and where duty calls thee 
is the subordinate. Thou, understood, is the subject of 
the principal clause, and go is the simple predicate. 
The subject is unlimited. The predicate is limited by 
the clause where duty calls thee, an adverbial element. 
Go where duty calls thee is the complex predicate of the 
principal clause. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 171 

Duty is the subject of the subordinate clause,, and 
calls is the simple predicate. The subject is unlimited. 
The predicate is limited by thee, an objective element, 
and also by ivliere, an adverbial element. 

This analysis may be written thus: 

(thou) Go 

duty calls 

thee° 
where 

EXERCISES. 

390. Analyze the following sentences: 

1. Make friends when you can. 

2. When you hear his footsteps, open the door. 

3. I heard music as I approached the house. 

4. We hurried because the storm increased. 

5. I will go when you return. 

6. The weary soldiers stopped wherever night overtook them. 

7. Will he come if the rain ceases? 

391. Construct four complex sentences, containing 
clauses used as adverbial elements. Write the analysis 
of each. 



LETTER WRITING. 

392. Study the following letter. Notice the ease 
and gracefulness of the writer's style of expression, and 
the beauty of his thoughts: 

A LETTER. 

Passy, 22d April, 1784 
My dear Mr. Webb: 

I received yours of the 15th instant and the memorial it 
enclosed. The account they give of your situation grieves me. 
I send you herewith a bill for ten louis d'ors. 1 I do not pretend 



172 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

to give you such a sum; I only lend it to you. When you shall 
return to your country with a good character, you can not fail 
of getting into some business that will in time enable you to 
pay all your debts. In that case, when you meet with another 
honest man in similar distress, you must pay me by lending this 
sum to him, enjoining him to discharge the debt by a like 
operation, when he shall be able and shall meet with such 
another opportunity. I hope it may thus go through many 
hands before it meets with a knave that will stop its progress. 
This is a trick of mine for doing a deal of good with a little 
money. I am not rich enough to afford much in good works, 
and so am obliged to be cunning, and make the most of a little. 
With best wishes for the success of your memorial and your 
future prosperity, I am, dear sir, 

Your most obedient servant, 2 

Benj. Franklin. 

Having made yourself familiar with the lesson con- 
veyed in Franklin's letter, try to write a similar one. 
You may imagine you have accommodated some poor 
boy or girl with a good book, or a pair of skates, or 
have done him or her some other good service. 

Write a letter to your brother in New Orleans, thank- 
ing him for a book he has sent you — perhaps il Little 
Lord Fauntleroy" — and telling what you think of it. 

Write an imaginary letter from a puppy to an express 
company about to convey him to his purchaser in San 
Francisco. Let your letter describe the kennel he wishes 
to travel in, the meals he wishes to have, and the hours 
he wishes them served, etc. 

Note: 1 About $40. 2 A form not used to-day. How would 
you close your letter? 

393. The Compound Sentence. 

A Compound Sentence is one which contains two or 
more principal clauses; as, 



1. 



PRIMAR T GRAMMAR. 173 

1. Birds carol and plowboys whistle. 

2. Men must work or they will be worthless. 

3. We must eat to live, but we should not live to eat. 

The clauses forming a compound sentence are called 
Members. They are united by the coordinate connect- 
ives and, lut, or, nor, and sometimes by for, yet, 
hence, etc. 

Connectives, also certain other words, understood or 
easily supplied, are often omitted from the compound 
sentence; as, 

War has ceased, peace has come. 
Worms crawl, fishes swim, birds fly. 
3. They are poor, but (they are) intelligent. 

394. The Complex Predicate. 

Model XIY. — Make friends and keep them. 

This is a compound, imperative sentence, of which 
make friends is the first member, and keep them is the 
second. Thou, understood, is the subject of the first 
member, and make is the simple predicate. The predi- 
cate is limited by friends, an objective element. Make 
friends is the complex predicate. Thou, understood, is 
the subject of the second member, and keep is the sim- 
ple predicate. The predicate is limited by them, an 
objective element. Keep them is the complex predicate. 
And is the connective. 

This analysis may be written thus: 

f(thou) Make 

J and friends 

I (thou) keep 

L them 



174 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

395. Analyze the following sentences: 

1. I go but I return. 

2. They read poetry; I read prose. 

3. The frost comes and the flowers fade. 

4. Precious stones are lifeless, but they are fadeless. 

5. The man dies, but his memory lives. 

6. Govern your passions or they will govern you. 

7. Keep a secret, it will not burst you. 

8. He is witty, but (he is) vulgar. 

9. He will not come, nor will he send another. 

396. Write four compound sentences — two with a 
connective, and two without. Write the analysis of 
each. 

397. Selections for Analysis* 

1. Self-love is a mote in every man's eye. 

2. Wounds made by words are hard to heal. 

3. Every man's reason is every man's oracle. 

4-. It is costly wisdom that is bought by bad experience. 

5. Prayer leads the heart to God and He always listens. 

6. He that will not be ruled by the rudder must be ruled 

by the rock. 

7. Hope comes with smiles to cheer the hour of pain. 

8. To relieve the distressed was his constant endeavor. 

9. Choose an author as you choose a friend. 

10. The committee are unable to agree on their report. 

11. A desire to excel leads to eminence. 

12. I come not here to talk. 

13. The fat of the body is fuel laid away for use. 

14. Peter denied that he knew his Lord. 

15. Where the bee sucks honey, the spider sucks poison. 

16. Make hay while the sun shines. 

17. Every man desires to live long, but no man would 

be old. 

18. When the righteous rule, the people rejoice. 

19. Some are born great, some achieve greatness. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 175 

20. Wealth acquired dishonestly usually becomes a curse. 

21. Recreation is a sponge that wipes from the brain all 
toil and turmoil. 

22. A pitcher that goes often to the fountain becomes broken 
at last. 

23. Enthusiasm is the genius of sincerity, and truth wins no 
victories without it. 

24. God puts a good root in the little pig's way. 

25. Fickle men are apt to rove. 

26. Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable. 

27. If fields are prisons, where is liberty? 

28. Justice is blind; he knows nobody. 

29. Is naked truth actable in true life? 

30. If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. 

31. Death entombs the body; life entombs the soul. 

32. Affronts are harmless where men are worthless. 

33. A blow with a word is deeper than (is) a blow with a sword. 

34. Oh, no! we never mention her. 

35. Everything comes, if a man will only work and wait. 

36. Sin has many tools, but a lie is the handle that fits them all. 

37. Good words are better than bad strokes (are). 

38. They that govern the most make the least noise. 

39. Though he were a giant, yet I should not fear him. 

40. Straws show which way the wind blows. 

41. The sower went forth to sow. 

42. Men will judge us by the company we keep. 

43. The water is smooth where the brook is deep. 

44. The pupils had a long lesson to learn. 

45. He was unwilling to tell where he went. 

46. They told us where they went, what they did, and whom 
they saw. 

47. God sent His singers upon earth 
With songs of gladness and of mirth. 

48. Men may come and men may go, 
But I go on forever. — Tennyson. 

49. The vine still clings to the mouldering wall, 
But at every gust the dead leaves fall, 

And the day is dark and dreary. — Longfellow. 



176 PRIMAR Y GRAMMAR. 

50. The outward forms the inward man reveal, 
We guess the pulp before we cut the peel. 

O. W. Holmes. 

51. Day hath put on his jacket, and around 
His burning bosom buttoned it with stars. 

O. W. Holmes. 

52. Be firm! one constant element in luck 
Is genuine, solid, old Teutonic pluck. 

O. W. Holmes. 

53. The sun stepped down from his golden throne, 

And lay in the silent sea, 
And the Lily had folded her satin leaves, 

For a sleepy thing was she; 
What is the Lily dreaming of? 

Why crisp the waters blue? 
See, see she is lifting her varnished lid! 

Her white leaves are glistening through! 

The Rose is cooling his burning cheek 

In the lap of the breathless tide; 
The Lily hath sisters fresh and fair, 

That would lie by the Rose's side; 
He would love her better than all the rest, 

And he would be fond and true; 
But the Lily unfolded her weary lids, 

And looked at the sky so blue. 

Holmes' "Star and Lily." 

Rats! 
They fought the dogs, and killed the cats, 

And bit the babies in the cradles, 
And ate the cheeses out of the vats, 

And licked the soup from the cook's own ladles, 
Split open the kegs of salted sprats, 
Made nests inside men's Sunday hats, 
And even spoiled the women's chats, 

By drowning their speaking 

With shrieking and squeaking 
In fifty different sharps and flats. 

— Browning. 



APPENDIX. 



CONJUGATION. 

398. The Conjugation of a verb is the correct expres- 
sion, in regular order, of its modes, tenses, voices, persons, 
and numbers. 

The Principal Parts of a verb are: The Present In- 
dicative, the Past Indicative, and the Perfect Participle. 

The Synopsis of a verb is the expression of its forms 
through the modes and tenses, in a single number and 
person. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE. 
Principal Parts. 



rese 

be 


nt Tense. 
or am 


Past Tense. Perfect Participle 
was been 

SYNOPSIS. 

Indicative Mode. 




Present 
Present 
Past . 
Past Pe 
Future 
Future 


T am. 




Perfect 
rfect . 


. I have been. 
. I was. 
. I had been. 
I shall be. 




Perfect 


. I shall have been 



177 



178 PRIMARY GRAMMAR 

Potential Mode. 



. . . I may, can, or must be. 

Present Perfect . I may, can, or must have been. 

Past I might, could, would, or should be. 

Past Perfect . . I might, could, would, or should have been 

Subjunctive Mode. 
Present . . . If I be. Past .... If I were. 

Imperative Mode. 
Present ... Be (with subject in second person). 

Participles. 
Present . Being. Past . Been. Perfect . Having been. 

Infinitives. 
Present . . . (To) be. Perfect . . (To) have been. 

LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

399. The following list includes nearly all the 
irregular verbs in the language. Those marked R are 
also used as regular verbs. Those in italics have unlike 
forms for the past tense and the perfect participle. 
Most errors occur in the use of those in italics. 

1. Never use have {has or had) with the past tense. 

2. Never use the perfect participle for the past tense. 
8. Hang, to execute by hanging, is regular. 

Jf. Lighted is preferred to lit. 

Obs. — Some verbs with two forms for the past tense and the 
perfect participle have different meanings for the different forms, 
as worked and wrought. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



179 



Present 


Past 


Perfect 


Present 


Past 


Perfect 


Tense. 


Tense. 


Participle. 


Tense. 


Tense. 


Participle. 


Abide 


abode 


abode 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Arise 


arose 


arisen 


Dare 


durst, R 


dared 


Awake 


awoke, K 


awaked 


Deal 


dealt, R 


dealt, R 


Be or am 


was 


been 


Dig 


dug, R 


dug, R 


Bear 


bore 


born 


Dive 


dove, R 


dived 


Bear 


bore 


borne 


Do 


did 


done 


Beat 


beat 


beaten 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Begin 


began 


begun 


Dream 


dreamt, R dreamt, R 


Bend 


bent, R 


bent, R 


Dress 


drest, R 


drest, R 


Bereave 


bereft, R 


bereft, R 


Drink 


drank 


j drank 
\ drunk 


Beseech 


besought 


besought 






Bet 


bet, R 


bet, R 


Drive 


drove 


driven 




(bid \ 
( bade ) 




Dwell 


dwelt, R 


dwelt, R 


Bid 


bidden 


Eat 


ate 


eaten 


Bless 


blest, R 


blest, R 


Fall 


fell 


fallen 


Bind 


bound 


bound 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Bite 


bit 


bitten 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Find 


found 


found 


Break 


broke 


broken 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Breed 


bred 


bred 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Bring 


brought 


brought 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Build 


built, R 


built, R 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Burn 


burnt, R 


burnt, R 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Burst 


burst 


burst 


Get 


got 


(got 
\ gotten 


Buy 


bought 


bought 






Cast 


cast 


cast 


Gild 


gilt, R 


gilt, R 


Catch 


caught, R 


caught, R 


Gird 


girt, R 


girt, R 


Chide 


chid 


chidden 


Give 


gave 


given 


Choose 


chose 


chosen 


Go 


went 


gone 




j clove 
1 cleft 


cloven 


Grave 


graved 


graven, R 


Cleave 


cleft 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Clothe 


clad, R 


clad, R 


Hang 


hung 


hung 


Come 


came 


come 


Have 


had 


had 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Heave 


hove, R 


hoven, R 


Crow 


crew, R 


crowed 


Hew 


hewed 


hewn, R 



180 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



Present 


Past 


Perfect 


Present 


Past 


Perfect 


Tense. 


Tense. 


Participle. 


Tense. 


Tense. 


Participle. 


Hide 


hid 


hidden 


Saw 


sawed 


sawn, R 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Say 


said 


said 


Hold 


held 


held 


See 


saw 


seen 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Seek 


sought 


sought 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Seethe 


sod, R 


sodden, R 


Kneel 


knelt, R 


knelt, R 


Sell 


sold 


sold 


Knit 


knit, R 


knit, R 


Send 


sent 


sent 


Know 


knew 


known 


Set 


set 


set 


Lade 


laded 


laden, R 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Lay 


laid 


laid 


Shape 


shaped 


shapen, R 


Lead 


led 


led 


Shave 


shaved 


. shaven, R 


Lean 


leant, R 


leant, R 


Shear 


sheared 


shorn, R 


Leap 


leapt, R 


leapt, R 


Shed 


shed 


shed 


Leave 


left 


left 


Shine 


shone, R 


shone, R 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Shoe 


shod 


shod 


Let 


let 


let 


Shoot 


shot 


shot 


Lie 


lay 


lain 


Show 


showed 


shown, R 


Light 


lit, R 


lit, R 


Shred 


shred 


shred 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Shrink 


j shrunk ) 
( shrank f 


shrunk 


Make 


made 


made 






Mean 


meant 


meant 


Shut 


shut 


shut 


Meet 

Mow 


met 
mowed 


met 
mown, R 


Sing 


j sang ) 
] sung f 
j sunk | 
( sank \ 


sung 


Pass 


past, R 


past, R 


Sink 


sunk 


Pay 


paid 


paid 


Sit 


sat 


sat 


Pen 


pent, R 


pent, R 


Slay 


slew 


slain 


Put 


put 


put 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


Quit 


quit, R 


quit, R 


Slide 


slid 


j slidden 
"j slid 


Rap 


rapt, R 


rapt, R 


Read 


read 


read 


Sling 


slung 


slung 


Rend 


rend 


rent 


Slink 


slunk 


slunk 


Rid 


rid 


rid 


Slit 


slit 


slit 


Ride 


rode 


ridden 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Ring 
Rise 


j rang ) 

\ rung S 

rose 


rung 
risen 


Sow 
Speak 


sowed 
j spoke ) 
} spake ) 


sown, R 
spoken 


Rive 


rived 


riven, R 


Speed 


sped 


sped 


Run 


ran 


run 


Spend 


spent 


spent 



PRIMABT GRAMMAR. 



181 



Present 
Tense. 

Spin 

Spit 

Split 
Spread 

Spring 

Stand 

Stay 

Steal 

Stick 

Sting 

Stride 

Strike 

String 
Strive 
Strow 
Swear 
Sweat 
Sweep 
SweU 

Swim 



Past 
Tense. 

( spun ) 
"j span \ 
j spit ) 
( spat ) 

split 

spread 

sprang ) 

sprung ) 

stood 

staid, R 

stole 

stuck 

stung 

strode 

strid 

struck 

strung 

strove 

strowed 

swore 

sweat, R 

swept 

swelled 
j swam ) 
( swum f 



Perfect 

Participle. 

spun 

spit 

split 
spread 

sprung 

stood 

staid, R 

stolen 

stuck 

stung 

stridden 

strid 

struck 

stricken 

strung 

striven 

strown, R 

sworn 

sweat, R 

swept 

swollen, R 

swum 



Present 
Tense. 

Swing 

Take 

Teach 

Tear 

Tell 

Think 

Thrive 

Throw 

Thrust 

Tread 

Wake 

Wax 

Wear 

Weave 

Wed 

Weep 

Wet 

Whet 

Win 

Wind 

Work 

Wring 

Write 



Past Perfect 

Tense. Participle. 



swung 

took 

taught 

tore ) 

tare f 

told 

thought 

throve, R 

threw 

thrust 

trod 

woke, R 

waxed 

wore 

wove 

wed, R 

wept 

wet, R 

whet, R 

won 

wound, R 

wrought, R 

wrung 

wrote 



swung 

taken 

taught 

torn 

told 

thought 

thriven, R 

thrown 

thrust 

trodden 

woke, R 

waxen, R 

worn 

woven 

wed, R 

wept 

wet, R 

whet, R 

won 

wound 

wrought, R 

wrung 

written 



TOPICAL INDEX. 



Abbreviations, 24, 25. 

Adjectives, 18, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 44, 47, 50, 51 
60, 73, 74, 76, 77, 78, 107, 108, 111, 112, 117, 118, 119, 120. 

Adverbs, 18, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 73, 74, 76, 77, 78, 111, 112, 120. 

Attributes, 42, 43, 44, 107, 108, 110, 112, 118, 119. 



Capitals, Rules for, 11, 20, 24, 135. 

Clauses, 122, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128, 131. 

Composition, 16, 27, 31, 39, 47, 52, 60, 67, 72, 78, 87, 92, 103, 113, 
121, 128, 136. 



Declarative Sentence, 12, 13, 14, 17, 26. 

Elements of the Sentence, 137, 138, 139, 147, 169, 170, 171. 



Noun, The, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 28, 29, 30, 33, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 41, 
42, 43, 46, 50, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 64, 65, 66, 69, 71, 73, 
105, 107, 108, 111, 117, 119. 

Punctuation, Rules for, 13, 24, 47, 133, 135, 145. 



182 



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